Sniper - Wikipedia

A sniper is a military/paramilitary marksman who engages targets from positions of concealment or at distances exceeding the target's detection capabilities ... Sniper FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Highlytrainedmarksman Forotheruses,seeSniper(disambiguation). SniperBritishandFrenchsnipersequippedwithFRF2,AccuracyInternationalAWMandPGMHécateIIriflesOccupationOccupationtypeMilitary/LawenforcementActivitysectorsUseofhigh-precisionriflesandspecialreconnaissance VasilyZaytsev,left,andotherSovietsnipersequippedwithMosin–NagantM1891/30duringtheBattleofStalingradinDecember1942. Amodernsniperweaponsystemwhichconsistsofasniperrifle(hereBarakHTR2000chamberedin.338LapuaMagnum),telescopicsight(LeupoldMarkIVx10),andadditionaloptics. Asniperisamilitary/paramilitarymarksmanwhoengagestargetsfrompositionsofconcealmentoratdistancesexceedingthetarget'sdetectioncapabilities.[1]Snipersgenerallyhavespecializedtrainingandareequippedwithhigh-precisionriflesandhigh-magnificationoptics,andoftenalsoserveasscouts/observersfeedingtacticalinformationbacktotheirunitsorcommandheadquarters. Inadditiontolong-rangeandhigh-grademarksmanship,militarysnipersaretrainedinavarietyofspecialoperationtechniques:detection,stalking,targetrangeestimationmethods,camouflage,fieldcraft,infiltration,specialreconnaissanceandobservation,surveillanceandtargetacquisition. Contents 1Etymology 2Modernwarfare 2.1Militarydoctrine 2.2Sniperteams 2.3Lawenforcementapplications 2.4Longestrecordedsniperkill 3Militaryhistory 3.11701–1800 3.21801–1900 3.3SecondBoerWar 3.4WorldWarI 3.5WorldWarII 4Training 4.1Accuracy 4.2U.S.military 4.3RussianArmy 5Targeting,tacticsandtechniques 5.1Rangefinding 5.2Hidesitesandhidingtechniques 5.3Shotplacement 5.4Targetacquisition 5.5Relocating 5.6Soundmasking 5.7Psychologicalwarfare 5.8Counter-snipertactics 6Irregularandasymmetricwarfare 6.1WarinIraq 6.2ArabSpring 7Notablemilitarymarksmenandsnipers 7.117thcentury 7.218thcentury 7.319thcentury 7.420thcentury 7.521stcentury 8Seealso 9References 10Furtherreading 11Externallinks Etymology[edit] Thename"sniper"comesfromtheverb"tosnipe",whichoriginatedinthe1770samongsoldiersinBritishIndiainreferencetoshootingsnipes,[2][3]awaderthatwasconsideredanextremelychallenginggamebirdforhuntersduetoitsalertness,camouflagingcoloranderraticflightbehavior.Snipehuntersthereforeneededtobestealthyinadditiontobeinggoodtrackersandmarksmen.[2][3]Inthe18thcentury,letterssenthomebyEnglishofficersinIndiareferredtoaday'sroughshootingas"goingsniping",[2]asittookaskilledflintlocksportsmanalotofpatienceandendurancetowing-shootasnipeinflight.[2]Accomplishingsuchanshotwasregardedasexceptional,andinevitablyduringthelate18thcentury,theterm"snipeshooting"wassimplifiedto"sniping".Thisevolvedtotheagentnoun"sniper",firstappearingbythe1820s.[3]Theterm"sniper"wasfirstattestedmilitarilyin1824,[4]becomingcommonplaceintheFirstWorldWar.[2] Theolderterm"sharpshooter"comesfromthecalqueofGermanwordScharfschütze,inusebyBritishnewspapersasearlyas1801.[3][5]Thewordalludestogoodmarksmanship,itselfdescendentoftheshootingcompetitions(Schützenfeste)[6]thattookplacethroughouttheyearinMunichinthe15thcentury.[6]Smallcompaniesofshooters(Schützenfähnlein)[6]fromtheGermanstatesandSwisscantonswouldformteamsofScharfschützen[7]forsuchpopularcompetitions;proudlycarryingflagsdepictingacrossbowononesideandatargetmusketontheother.[6]TheearliestknowndateforthecreationofashootingclubformedspecificallyfortheuseoffirearmscomesfromLucerne,Switzerland,whereoneclubhasacharterdatingfrom1466.[6]DuringtheAmericanCivilWar,ConfederatemarksmenequippedwiththeimportedWhitworthrifleswerefamouslyknownastheWhitworthSharpshooters. Snipersarealsocalled"hunters"inmanylanguages,duetothenatureofthecraft(withthehuntinghornalsobeingasymbolofmarksmanship),beingcalledCaçadores,ChasseursandJägers.Otherwordsforsniperincludefranc-tiréur,tiréurd'éliteandatiradordeescol. Modernwarfare[edit] Mainarticles:SnipersoftheSovietUnion,ScoutSniper,Designatedmarksman,Specialreconnaissance,andISTAR Over-watchbeingprovidedbyanarmysergeantduringahigh-levelmeeting,Baghdad,Iraq. AU.S.ArmysniperusingaBarrettM82. Militarydoctrine[edit] Differentcountriesusedifferentmilitarydoctrinesregardingsnipersinmilitaryunits,settings,andtactics. Generally,asniper'sprimaryfunctioninmodernwarfareistoprovidedetailedsurveillancefromaconcealedpositionand,ifnecessary,toreducetheenemy'scombatabilitybyneutralizinghigh-valuetargets(especiallyofficersandotherkeypersonnel)andintheprocesspinningdownanddemoralizingtheenemy.[8][page needed][9][page needed]Typicalsnipermissionsincludemanagingintelligenceinformationtheygatherduringreconnaissance,targetacquisitionandimpactfeedbackforairstrikesandartillery,assistingemployedcombatforcewithaccuratefiresupportandcounter-snipertactics,killingenemycommanders,selectingtargetsofopportunity,andevendestructionofmilitaryequipment,whichtendtorequireuseofanti-materielriflesinthelargercaliberssuchasthe.50BMG,liketheBarrettM82,McMillanTac-50,andDenelNTW-20.[9][page needed] Soviet-andRussian-derivedmilitarydoctrinesincludesquad-levelsnipers.SnipershaveincreasinglybeendemonstratedasusefulbyUSandUKforcesintherecentIraqcampaigninafiresupportroletocoverthemovementofinfantry,especiallyinurbanareas.[9][page needed] MilitarysnipersfromtheUS,UKandothercountriesthatadopttheirmilitarydoctrinearetypicallydeployedintwo-mansniperteamsconsistingofashooterandaspotter.[10][page needed]Acommonpracticeisforashooterandaspottertotaketurnstoavoideyefatigue.[9][page needed]Inmostrecentcombatoperationsoccurringinlargedenselypopulatedtowns,suchasFallujah,Iraq,twoteamswouldbedeployedtogethertoincreasetheirsecurityandeffectivenessinanurbanenvironment.Asniperteamwouldbearmedwithalong-rangeweaponandarapid-firingshorter-rangedweaponincaseofclosequartercombat. TheGermandoctrineoflargelyindependentsnipersandemphasisonconcealment,developedduringtheSecondWorldWar,hasbeenmostinfluentialonmodernsnipertactics,andiscurrentlyusedthroughoutWesternmilitaries(examplesarespecializedcamouflageclothing,concealmentinterrainandemphasisoncoupd'œil).[11][page needed][12][13] Sniperteams[edit] Thissectionneedsadditionalcitationsforverification.Pleasehelpimprovethisarticlebyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.(September2019)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) AU.S.ArmysniperteamfromJalalabadProvincialReconstructionTeam(PRT) Sniperriflesareclassifiedascrew-servedintheUnitedStatesmilitary.Asniperteam(orsnipercell)consistsofacombinationofatleastoneprimaryweaponoperator,(ie:theshooter),withothersupportpersonnelandforceprotectionelements,suchasaspotteroraflanker.WithintheTableofOrganizationandEquipmentforboththeUnitedStatesArmyandMarineCorps,theshooterdoesnotoperatealone,buthasabackupshootertrainedtofulfillmultiplerolesinadditiontobeingsniper-qualifiedintheoperationofthemainweapon.[14] Theshooterfocusesmainlyonfiringtheshot,whilethespotterassistsinobservationoftargets,accountsforatmosphericconditionsandhandlesancillarytasksasimmediatesecurityoftheirlocation,communicationwithotherparties(e.g.directingartilleryfireandcloseairsupport).Aflankerisanextrateammatewhoistaskedtoactasasentryobservingareasnotimmediatelyvisibletothesniperandspotter,assistingwiththeteam'srearsecurityandperimeterdefense,andthereforeareusuallyarmedwithafaster-firingweaponsuchasanassaultrifle,battlerifleordesignatedmarksmanrifle.Boththespotterandflankercarryadditionalammunitionandassociatedequipment.[15] Thespotterisresponsiblefordetecting,identifyingandassigningpriorityoftargetsfortheshooter,aswellasassessingtheoutcomeoftheshot.Usingaspottingscopeand/orarangefinder,thespotterwillpredicttheexternalballisticsandreadthewindspeedusingananemometerorphysicalindicatorslikethemiragecausedbygroundheat.Also,inconjunctionwiththeshooter,thespotterwillcalculatethedistance,shootingangle(slantrange),mil-relatedcorrection,interferencebyatmosphericfactorsandtherequiredleadsformovingtargets.Itisnotunusualforthespottertobeequippedwithaballistictable,anotebookoratabletcomputerspecificallyforperformingthesecalculations. Lawenforcementapplications[edit] YAMAM(Israel'scounter-terrorismunit)snipershootingwithsuppressedBarrettMRADsniperrifles Lawenforcementsnipers,commonlycalledpolicesnipers,andmilitarysnipersdifferinmanyways,includingtheirareasofoperationandtactics.Apolicesharpshooterispartofapoliceoperationandusuallytakespartinrelativelyshortmissions.Policeforcestypicallydeploysuchsharpshootersinhostagescenarios.Thisdiffersfromamilitarysniper,whooperatesaspartofalargerarmy,engagedinwarfare.SometimesaspartofaSWATteam,policesnipersaredeployedalongsidenegotiatorsandanassaultteamtrainedforclosequarterscombat.Aspolicemen,theyaretrainedtoshootonlyasalastresort,whenthereisadirectthreattolife;thepolicesharpshooterhasawell-knownrule:"Bepreparedtotakealifetosavealife."[16]Policesniperstypicallyoperateatmuchshorterrangesthanmilitarysnipers,generallyunder100meters(109 yd)andsometimesevenlessthan50meters(55 yd).Bothtypesofsnipersdomakedifficultshotsunderpressure,andoftenperformone-shotkills. AUSSecretServicesniperontheroofoftheWhiteHouse PoliceunitsthatareunequippedfortacticaloperationsmayrelyonaspecializedSWATteam,whichmayhaveadedicatedsniper.[16]Somepolicesniperoperationsbeginwithmilitaryassistance.[17]Policesnipersplacedinvantagepoints,suchashighbuildings,canprovidesecurityforevents.[18]Inonehigh-profileincidentcommonlyreferredtoas"TheShotSeenAroundtheWorld"duetogoingviralonline,MikePlumb,aSWATsniperinColumbus,Ohio,preventedasuicidebyshootingarevolveroutoftheindividual'shand,leavinghimunharmed.[19][20] AU.S.CoastGuardTACLETmarksmanusesanM107fromahelicopter. Theneedforspecializedtrainingforpolicesharpshooterswasmadeapparentin1972duringtheMunichmassacrewhentheGermanpolicecouldnotdeployspecializedpersonnelorequipmentduringthestandoffattheairportintheclosingphaseofthecrisis,andconsequentlyalloftheIsraelihostageswerekilled.WhiletheGermanarmydidhavesnipersin1972,theuseofarmysnipersinthescenariowasimpossibleduetotheGermanconstitution'sexplicitprohibitionoftheuseofthemilitaryindomesticmatters.Thislackoftrainedsniperswhocouldbeusedincivilianroleswaslateraddressedwiththefoundingofthespecializedpolicecounter-terroristunitGSG9. Longestrecordedsniperkill[edit] Mainarticle:Longestrecordedsniperkills BritishsniperintraininginNorthumberland,2010. ThelongestconfirmedsniperkillincombatwasachievedbyanundisclosedmemberoftheCanadianJTF2specialforcesinJune2017atadistanceof3,540 m(3,871 yd).[21] ThepreviousrecordholderwasCraigHarrison,aCorporalofHorse(CoH)intheBluesandRoyalsRHG/DoftheBritishArmy.InNovember2009,HarrisonstrucktwoTalibanmachinegunnersconsecutivelysouthofMusaQalainHelmandProvinceinAfghanistanatarangeof2,475 m(2,707 yd)or1.54milesusingaL115A3LongRangeRifle.[22][23] TheQTULapuaexternalballisticssoftware,[24]usingcontinuousdopplerdragcoefficient(Cd)dataprovidedbyLapua,[25]predictsthatsuchshotstraveling2,475 m(2,707 yd)wouldlikelyhavestrucktheirtargetsafternearly6.0secondsofflighttime,havinglost93%oftheirkineticenergy,retaining255 m/s(840 ft/s)oftheiroriginal936 m/s(3,070 ft/s)velocity,andhavingdropped121.39 m(398 ft3 in)or2.8°fromtheoriginalboreline.Duetotheextremedistancesandtraveltimeinvolved,evenalightcross-breezeof2.7 m/s(6.0 mph)wouldhavedivertedsuchshots9.2 m(360 in)offtarget,whichwouldhaverequiredcompensation. Thecalculationassumesaflat-firescenario(asituationwheretheshootingandtargetpositionsareatequalelevation),usingBritishmilitarycustomhigh-pressure.338LapuaMagnumcartridges,loadedwith16.2g(250gr)LapuaLockBaseB408bullets,firedat936 m/s(3,071 ft/s)muzzlevelocity[26]underthefollowingon-site(average)atmosphericconditions:barometricpressure:1,019 hPa(30.1 inHg)atsea-levelequivalentor899 hPa(26.5 inHg)on-site,humidity:25.9%,andtemperature:15 °C(59 °F)intheregionforNovember2009,[27]resultinginanairdensityρ=1.0854 kg/m3atthe1,043 m(3,422 ft)elevationofMusaQala.Harrisonmentionsinreportsthattheenvironmentalconditionswereperfectforlongrangeshooting,"...nowind,mildweather,clearvisibility."[23]InaBBCinterview,Harrisonreportedittookaboutnineshotsforhimandhisspottertoinitiallyrangethetargetsuccessfully.[28] Militaryhistory[edit] Beforethedevelopmentofrifling,firearmsweresmoothboreandinaccurateoverlongdistance.Barrelriflingwasinventedattheendofthefifteenthcentury,butwasonlyemployedinlargecannons.Overtime,rifling,alongwithothergunneryadvances,hasincreasedtheperformanceofmodernfirearms. 1701–1800[edit] EarlyformsofsnipingormarksmanshipwereusedduringtheAmericanRevolutionaryWar.Forinstance,in1777atthebattleofSaratogatheColonistshidinthetreesandusedearlymodelriflestoshootBritishofficers.Mostnotably,TimothyMurphyshotandkilledGeneralSimonFraserofBalnainon7October1777atadistanceofabout400yards.[29][30][31]DuringtheBattleofBrandywine,Capt.PatrickFergusonhadatall,distinguishedAmericanofficerinhisrifle'sironsights.Fergusondidnottaketheshot,astheofficerhadhisbacktoFerguson;onlylaterdidFergusonlearnthatGeorgeWashingtonhadbeenonthebattlefieldthatday.[32] AspecialunitofmarksmenwasestablishedduringtheNapoleonicWarsintheBritishArmy.Whilemosttroopsatthattimeusedinaccuratesmoothboremuskets,theBritish"GreenJackets"(namedfortheirdistinctivegreenuniforms)usedthefamousBakerrifle.Throughthecombinationofaleatherwadandtightgroovesontheinsideofthebarrel(rifling),thisweaponwasfarmoreaccurate,thoughslowertoload.TheseRiflemenweretheeliteoftheBritishArmy,andservedattheforefrontofanyengagement,mostofteninskirmishformation,scoutingoutanddelayingtheenemy.Anotherterm,"sharpshooter"wasinuseinBritishnewspapersasearlyas1801.IntheEdinburghAdvertiser,23June1801,canbefoundthefollowingquoteinapieceabouttheNorthBritishMilitia;"ThisRegimenthasseveralFieldPieces,andtwocompaniesofSharpShooters,whichareverynecessaryinthemodernStileofWar".Thetermappearsevenearlier,around1781,inContinentalEurope,translatedfromtheGermanScharfschütze. 1801–1900[edit] ScoutsintheAshantiarmyweremadeupofprofessionalhunterswhousedtheirskillasmarksmentosnipeatadvancingenemyforcesinresponsetodetectionbytheenemy.Theyexecutedthisoftenfromaperchhighintrees.[33] TheWhitworthriflewasarguablythefirstlong-rangesniperrifleintheworld.[34]AmuzzleloaderdesignedbySirJosephWhitworth,aprominentBritishengineer,itusedpolygonalriflinginstead,whichmeantthattheprojectiledidnothavetobiteintogroovesaswasdonewithconventionalrifling.TheWhitworthriflewasfarmoreaccuratethanthePattern1853Enfield,whichhadshownsomeweaknessesduringtherecentCrimeanWar.Attrialsin1857whichtestedtheaccuracyandrangeofbothweapons,Whitworth'sdesignoutperformedtheEnfieldatarateofaboutthreetoone.TheWhitworthriflewascapableofhittingthetargetatarangeof2,000yards,whereastheEnfieldcouldonlymanageitat1,400yards.[35] DuringtheCrimeanWar,thefirstopticalsightsweredesignedtofitontorifles.MuchofthispioneeringworkwasthebrainchildofColonelD.Davidson,usingopticalsightsproducedbyChanceBrothersofBirmingham.Thisallowedamarksmantoobserveandtargetobjectsmoreaccuratelyatagreaterdistancethaneverbefore.[36]Thetelescopicsight,orscope,wasoriginallyfixedandcouldnotbeadjusted,whichthereforelimiteditsrange. Despiteitssuccessatthetrials,theriflewasnotadoptedbytheBritishArmy.However,theWhitworthRifleCompanywasabletoselltheweapontotheFrencharmy,andalsototheConfederacyduringtheAmericanCivilWar,[37]whereboththeUnionandConfederatearmiesemployedsharpshooters.ThemostnotableincidentwasduringtheBattleofSpotsylvaniaCourtHouse,whereon9May1864,UnionGeneralJohnSedgwickwaskilledbyaConfederateWhitworthsharpshooteratarangeofabout1,000yards(910meters)aftersayingtheenemy"couldn'thitanelephantatthisdistance".[38][39][40][41] SecondBoerWar[edit] FrederickRussellBurnhaminAfrica DuringtheBoerWarthelatestbreech-loadingrifledgunswithmagazinesandsmokelesspowderwereusedbybothsides.TheBritishwereequippedwiththeLee–Metfordrifle,whiletheBoershadreceivedthelatestMauserriflesfromGermany.IntheopenterrainofSouthAfricathemarksmenwereacrucialcomponenttotheoutcomeofthebattle. ThefirstBritishsniperunitbeganlifeastheLovatScouts,aScottishHighlandregimentformedin1899,thatearnedhighpraiseduringtheSecondBoerWar(1899–1902).[9][page needed]TheunitwasformedbyLordLovatandreportedtoanAmerican,MajorFrederickRussellBurnham,theBritishArmyChiefofScoutsunderLordRoberts.Burnhamfittinglydescribedthesescoutsas"halfwolfandhalfjackrabbit.".[42]JustliketheirBoerscoutopponents,thesescoutswerewellpractisedintheartsofmarksmanship,fieldcraft,mapreading,observation,andmilitarytactics.[43]Theywereskilledwoodsmenandpractitionersofdiscretion:"Hewhoshootsandrunsaway,livestoshootanotherday."Theywerealsothefirstknownmilitaryunittowearaghilliesuit.[44] HeskethHesketh-Prichardsaidofthemthat"keenermenneverlived",[45]andthat"Burnhamwasthegreatestscoutofourtime."[46]BurnhamdistinguishedhimselfinwarsinSouthAfrica,Rhodesia,andinArizonafightingtheApaches,andhisdefinitivework,ScoutingonTwoContinents,providesadramaticandenlighteningpictureofwhatasniperwasatthetimeandhowheoperated.[43] Afterthewar,thisregimentwentontoformallybecomethefirstofficialsniperunit,thenbetterknownassharpshooters.[42] WorldWarI[edit] AnAustraliansniperaimsaperiscope-equippedrifleatGallipoliin1915.Thespotterbesidehimishelpingtofindtargetswithhisownperiscope. DuringWorldWarI,snipersappearedasdeadlysharpshootersinthetrenches.Atthestartofthewar,onlyImperialGermanyhadtroopsthatwereissuedscopedsniperrifles.Althoughsharpshootersexistedonallsides,theGermansspeciallyequippedsomeoftheirsoldierswithscopedriflesthatcouldpickoffenemysoldiersshowingtheirheadsoutoftheirtrench.[11][page needed]AtfirsttheFrenchandBritishbelievedsuchhitstobecoincidentalhits,untiltheGermanscopedrifleswerediscovered.[11][page needed]DuringWorldWarI,theGermanarmyreceivedareputationforthedeadlinessandefficiencyofitssnipers,partlybecauseofthehigh-qualitylensesthatGermanindustrycouldmanufacture.[11][page needed] DuringtheFirstWorldWar,thestaticmovementoftrenchwarfareandaneedforprotectionfromsniperscreatedarequirementforloopholesbothfordischargingfirearmsandforobservation.[47]Oftenasteelplatewasusedwitha"keyhole",whichhadarotatingpiecetocovertheloopholewhennotinuse.[47] SoldiersraiseaPapier-mâchédummyheadtolocateanenemysniper SoontheBritisharmybegantotraintheirownsnipersinspecializedsniperschools.MajorHeskethHesketh-Prichardwasgivenformalpermissiontobeginsnipertrainingin1915,andfoundedtheFirstArmySchoolofSniping,Observation,andScoutingatLingheminFrancein1916.[48]Startingwithafirstclassofonlysix,intimehewasabletolecturetolargenumbersofsoldiersfromdifferentAlliednations,proudlyproclaiminginaletterthathisschoolwasturningoutsnipersatthreetimestherateofanysuchotherschoolintheworld.[49] Healsodevisedametal-armoureddoubleloopholethatwouldprotectthesniperobserverfromenemyfire.Thefrontloopholewasfixed,buttherearwashousedinametalshutterslidingingrooves.Onlywhenthetwoloopholeswerelinedup—aone-to-twentychance—couldanenemyshootbetweenthem.[50]Anotherinnovationwastheuseofadummyheadtofindthelocationofanenemysniper.[51]Thepapier-mâchéfigureswerepaintedtoresemblesoldierstodrawsniperfire.Somewereequippedwithrubbersurgicaltubingsothedummycould"smoke"acigaretteandthusappearrealistic.Holespunchedinthedummybyenemysniperbulletsthencouldbeusedfortriangulationpurposestodeterminethepositionoftheenemysniper,whocouldthenbeattackedwithartilleryfire.Hedevelopedmanyofthemoderntechniquesinsniping,includingtheuseofspottingscopesandworkinginpairs,andusingKim'sGametotrainobservationalskills.[52] In1920,hewrotehisaccountofhiswartimeactivitiesinhisbookSnipinginFrance,towhichreferenceisstillmadebymodernauthorsregardingthesubject.[53][54][55] ThemainsniperriflesusedduringtheFirstWorldWarweretheGermanMauserGewehr98;theBritishPattern1914Enfield[56]andLee–EnfieldSMLEMkIII,theCanadianRossrifle,theAmericanM1903Springfield,[57]theItalianM1891Carcano,andtheRussianM1891Mosin–Nagant WorldWarII[edit] SovietsniperLyudmilaPavlichenkoona1943stamp. Duringtheinterbellum,mostnationsdroppedtheirspecializedsniperunits,notablytheGermans.EffectivenessanddangersofsnipersonceagaincametotheforeduringtheSpanishCivilWar.Theonlynationthathadspeciallytrainedsniperunitsduringthe1930swastheSovietUnion.Sovietsnipersweretrainedintheirskillsasmarksmen,inusingtheterraintohidethemselvesfromtheenemyandtheabilitytoworkalongsideregularforces.ThismadetheSovietsnipertrainingfocusmoreon"normal"combatsituationsthanthoseofothernations. SnipersreappearedasimportantfactorsonthebattlefieldfromthefirstcampaignofWorldWarII.DuringGermany's1940campaigns,lone,well-hiddenFrenchandBritishsniperswereabletohalttheGermanadvanceforaconsiderableamountoftime.Forexample,duringthepursuittoDunkirk,BritishsniperswereabletosignificantlydelaytheGermaninfantry'sadvance.ThispromptedtheBritishonceagaintoincreasetrainingofspecializedsniperunits.Apartfrommarksmanship,Britishsnipersweretrainedtoblendinwiththeenvironment,oftenbyusingspecialcamouflageclothingforconcealment.However,becausetheBritishArmyofferedsnipertrainingexclusivelytoofficersandnon-commissionedofficers,theresultingsmallnumberoftrainedsnipersincombatunitsconsiderablyreducedtheiroveralleffectiveness.[12] DuringtheWinterWar,FinnishsniperstookaheavytolloftheinvadingSovietarmy.SimoHäyhäiscreditedwith505confirmedkills,[58][59]mostwiththeFinnishversionoftheiron-sightedbolt-actionMosin–Nagant. GermansniperinStalingrad,SovietUnion(1942) Oneofthebestknownbattlesinvolvingsnipers,andthebattlethatmadetheGermansreinstatetheirspecializedsnipertraining,wastheBattleofStalingrad.TheirdefensivepositioninsideacityfilledwithrubblemeantthatSovietsniperswereabletoinflictsignificantcasualtiesontheWehrmachttroops.Becauseofthenatureoffightingincityrubble,sniperswereveryhardtospotandseriouslydentedthemoraleoftheGermanattackers.ThebestknownofthesesniperswasprobablyVasilyZaytsev,featuredinthenovelWaroftheRatsandthesubsequentfilmEnemyattheGates. GermanScharfschützenwerepreparedbeforethewar,equippedwithKarabiner98andlaterGewehr43rifles,buttherewereoftennotenoughoftheseweaponsavailable,andassuchsomewerearmedwithcapturedscopedMosin–Nagant1891/30,SVT,CzechMauserriflesorscopedGewehr98fromWW1.TheWehrmachtre-establisheditssnipertrainingin1942,drasticallyincreasingthenumberofsnipersperunitwiththecreationofanadditional31snipertrainingcompaniesby1944.Germansniperswereatthetimetheonlysnipersintheworldissuedwithpurpose-manufacturedsnipingammunition,knownasthe'effect-firing'sSround.[60]The'effect-firing'sSroundfeaturedanextracarefullymeasuredpropellantchargeandseatedaheavy12.8 gram(198gr)full-metal-jacketedboat-tailprojectileofmatch-gradebuildquality,lackingusualfeaturessuchasaseatingringtoimprovethealreadyhighballisticcoefficientof.584(G1)further.[61]ForaimingopticsGermansnipersusedtheZeissZielvier4x(ZF39)telescopicsightwhichhadbulletdropcompensationin50mincrementsforrangesfrom100mupto800morinsomevariationsfrom100mupto1000mor1200m.TherewereZF42,Zielfernrohr43(ZF4),ZeissZielsechs6x,ZeissZielacht8xandothertelescopicsightsbyvariousmanufacturersliketheAjack4x,HensoldtDialytan4xandKahlesHeliavier4xwithsimilarfeaturesemployedonGermansniperrifles.Severaldifferentmountingsproducedbyvariousmanufacturerswereusedformountingaimingopticstotherifles.InFebruary1945theZielgerät1229activeinfraredaimingdevicewasissuedfornightsnipingwiththeStG44assaultrifle. Atotalof428,335individualsreceivedRedArmysnipertraining,includingSovietandnon-Sovietpartisans,with9,534receivingthesniping'higherqualification'.DuringWorldWarІІ,twosix-monthtrainingcoursesforwomenalonetrainednearly55,000snipers,ofwhichmorethantwothousandlaterservedinthearmy.[62][verificationneeded]Onaveragetherewasatleastonesniperinaninfantryplatoonandoneineveryreconnaissanceplatoon,includingintankandevenartilleryunits.[verificationneeded]SomeusedthePTRDanti-tankriflewithanadaptedscopeasanearlyexampleofananti-materielrifle. ABritishsniperinGennep,Holland,14February1945. CanadianSniperduringWorldWarII. IntheUnitedStatesArmedForces,snipertrainingwasonlyveryelementaryandwasmainlyconcernedwithbeingabletohittargetsoverlongdistances.Sniperswererequiredtobeabletohitabodyover400metersaway,andaheadover200metersaway.Therewasalmostnoinstructioninblendingintotheenvironment.Snipertrainingvariedfromplacetoplace,resultinginwidevariationinthequalitiesofsnipers.ThemainreasontheUSdidnotextendsnipertrainingbeyondlong-rangeshootingwasthelimiteddeploymentofUSsoldiersuntiltheNormandyInvasion.DuringthecampaignsinNorthAfricaandItaly,mostfightingoccurredinaridandmountainousregionswherethepotentialforconcealmentwaslimited,incontrasttoWesternandCentralEurope.[citationneeded] TheU.S.Army'slackoffamiliaritywithsnipingtacticsproveddisastrousinNormandyandthecampaigninWesternEuropewheretheyencounteredwelltrainedGermansnipers.[11][page needed]InNormandy,GermansnipersremainedhiddeninthedensevegetationandwereabletoencircleAmericanunits,firingatthemfromallsides.TheAmericanandBritishforcesweresurprisedbyhowneartheGermansniperscouldapproachinsafetyandattackthem,aswellasbytheirabilitytohittargetsatupto1,000m.AnotablemistakemadebyinexperiencedAmericansoldierswastoliedownandwaitwhentargetedbyGermansnipers,allowingthesniperstopickthemoffoneafteranother.[11][page needed]GermansnipersofteninfiltratedAlliedlinesandsometimeswhenthefront-linesmoved,theycontinuedtofightfromtheirsnipingpositions,refusingtosurrenderuntiltheirrationsandmunitionswereexhausted. ThosetacticswerealsoaconsequenceofchangesinGermanenlistment.AfterseveralyearsofwarandheavylossesontheEasternFront,theGermanarmywasforcedtorelymoreheavilyonenlistingteenagesoldiers.Duetolackoftraininginmorecomplexgrouptactics,andthankstorifletrainingprovidedbytheHitlerjugend,thosesoldierswereoftenusedasautonomousleft-behindsnipers.Whileanexperiencedsniperwouldtakeafewlethalshotsandretreattoasaferposition,thoseyoungboys,duebothtoadisregardfortheirownsafetyandtolackoftacticalexperiencewouldfrequentlyremaininaconcealedpositionandfightuntiltheyranoutofammunitionorwerekilledorwounded.Whilethistacticgenerallyendedinthedemiseofthesniper,givingrisetothenickname"SuicideBoys"thatwasgiventothosesoldiers,thisirrationalbehaviorprovedquitedisruptivetotheAlliedforces'progress.AfterWorldWarII,manyelementsofGermansnipertraininganddoctrinewerecopiedbyothercountries.[11] InthePacificWar,theEmpireofJapantrainedsnipers.InthejunglesofAsiaandthePacificIslands,snipersposedaseriousthreattoU.S.,British,andCommonwealthtroops.Japanesesniperswerespeciallytrainedtousetheenvironmenttoconcealthemselves.Japanesesnipersusedfoliageontheiruniformsanddugwell-concealedhide-outsthatwereoftenconnectedwithsmalltrenches.Therewasnoneedforlongrangeaccuracybecausemostcombatinthejungletookplacewithinafewhundredmeters.Japanesesniperswereknownfortheirpatienceandabilitytoremainhiddenforlongperiods.Theyalmostneverlefttheircarefullycamouflagedhidingspots.Thismeantthatwheneverasniperwasinthearea,thelocationofthesnipercouldbedeterminedafterthesniperhadfiredafewshots.TheAlliesusedtheirownsnipersinthePacific,notablytheU.S.Marines,whousedM1903Springfieldrifles. CommonsniperriflesusedduringtheSecondWorldWarinclude:theSovietM1891/30Mosin–Nagantand,toalesserextent,theSVT-40;theGermanMauserKarabiner98kandGewehr43;theBritishLee–EnfieldNo.4andPattern1914Enfield;theJapaneseArisaka97;theAmericanM1903A4SpringfieldandM1CGarand.TheItalianstrainedfewsnipersandsuppliedthemwithascopedCarcanoModel1891. Training[edit] Israelisniperandspotterteamtraininginasnipingrange. AUSMarineextractsafiredcartridgecasingandchambersanewroundintohisM40A3. Militarysnipertrainingaimstoteachahighdegreeofproficiencyincamouflageandconcealment,stalking,observationandmapreadingaswellasprecisionmarksmanshipundervariousoperationalconditions.Traineestypicallyshootthousandsofroundsoveranumberofweeks,whilelearningthesecoreskills. Snipersaretrainedtosqueezethetriggerstraightbackwiththeballoftheirfinger,toavoidjerkingthegunsideways.[9][page needed]Themostaccuratepositionisprone,withasandbagsupportingthestock,andthestock'scheek-pieceagainstthecheek.[9][page needed]Inthefield,abipodcanbeusedinstead.Sometimesaslingiswrappedaroundtheweakarm(orboth)toreducestockmovement.[9]Somedoctrinestrainasnipertobreathedeeplybeforeshooting,thenholdtheirlungsemptywhiletheylineupandtaketheirshot.[9][page needed]Somegofurther,teachingtheirsniperstoshootbetweenheartbeatstominimizebarrelmotion.[9][page needed] Accuracy[edit] RoyalMarinessniperdisplayinghisL115A1riflerestingonthree-leggedshootingsticks Thekeytosnipingisaccuracy,whichappliestoboththeweaponandtheshooter.Theweaponshouldbeabletoconsistentlyplaceshotswithintighttolerances.[9][page needed]Thesniperinturnmustusetheweapontoaccuratelyplaceshotsundervaryingconditions.[9][page needed] Asnipermusthavetheabilitytoaccuratelyestimatethevariousfactorsthatinfluenceabullet'strajectoryandpointofimpactsuchas:rangetothetarget,winddirection,windvelocity,altitudeandelevationofthesniperandthetargetandambienttemperature.Mistakesinestimationcompoundoverdistanceandcandecreaselethalityorcauseashottomisscompletely.[9][page needed] Sniperszerotheirweaponsatatargetrangeorinthefield.Thisistheprocessofadjustingthescopesothatthebullets'points-of-impactareatthepoint-of-aim(centreofscopeorscope'scross-hairs)foraspecificdistance.[9][page needed]Arifleandscopeshouldretainitszeroaslongaspossibleunderallconditionstoreducetheneedtore-zeroduringmissions.[9][page needed] Asandbagcanserveasausefulplatformforshootingasniperrifle,althoughanysoftsurfacesuchasarucksackwillsteadyarifleandcontributetoconsistency.[9][page needed]Inparticular,bipodshelpwhenfiringfromaproneposition,andenablethefiringpositiontobesustainedforanextendedperiodoftime.Manypoliceandmilitarysniperriflescomeequippedwithanadjustablebipod.[9][page needed]Makeshiftbipodsknownasshootingstickscanbeconstructedfromitemssuchastreebranchesorskipoles.[9][page needed]Somemilitarysnipersusethree-leggedshootingsticks. Rangeandaccuracyvarydependingonthecartridgeandspecificammunitiontypesthatareused.Typicalrangesforcommonbattlefieldcartridgesareasfollows: Cartridge Maximumeffectiverange[63] 5.56×45mmNATO(.223Remington) 300–500m 7.62×51mm(.308Winchester) 800–1,000m 7.62×54mmR 800–1,000m 7mmRemingtonMagnum 900–1,100m .300WinchesterMagnum 900–1,200m .338LapuaMagnum 1,300–1,600m .50BMG(12.7×99mmNATO) 1,500–2,000m 12.7×108mm(Russian) 1,500–2,000m 14.5×114mm(Russian) 1,900–2,300m .408CheyenneTactical 1,500–2,400m U.S.military[edit] PlaymediaTwosniperstrainingwith.50calBarretandAR-50 Servicemenvolunteerfortherigoroussnipertrainingandareacceptedonthebasisoftheiraptitude,physicalability,marksmanship,patienceandmentalstability.Militarysnipersmaybefurthertrainedasforwardaircontrollers(FACs)todirectairstrikesorforwardobservers(FOs)todirectartilleryormortarfire.[citationneeded] RussianArmy[edit] From2011,theRussianarmedforceshasrunnewlydevelopedsnipercoursesinmilitarydistricttrainingcentres.InplaceoftheSovietpracticeofmainlysquadsharpshooters,whichwereoftendesignatedduringinitialtraining(andofwhomonlyfewbecomesnipersperse),"new"Armysnipersaretobetrainedintensivelyfor3months(forconscripts)orlonger(forcontractsoldiers).Thetrainingprogramincludestheoryandpracticeofcountersniperengagements,artilleryspottingandcoordinationofairsupport.[15]ThefirstinstructorsarethegraduatesoftheSolnechnogorsksnipertrainingcentre. Themethodofsniperdeployment,accordingtotheMinistryofDefence,islikelytobeonethree-platooncompanyatthebrigadelevel,withoneoftheplatoonsactingindependentlyandtheothertwosupportingthebattalionsasneeded.[64] Targeting,tacticsandtechniques[edit] USMarinetelescopicsightpictureduringhigh-anglemarksmanshiptraining. Aerialplatformshootingtraining. Rangefinding[edit] Therangetothetargetismeasuredorestimatedaspreciselyasconditionspermitandcorrectrangeestimationbecomesabsolutelycriticalatlongranges,becauseabullettravelswithacurvedtrajectoryandthesnipermustcompensateforthisbyaiminghigheratlongerdistances.[9][page needed]Iftheexactdistanceisnotknownthesnipermaycompensateincorrectlyandthebulletpathmaybetoohighorlow.Asanexample,foratypicalmilitarysnipingcartridgesuchas7.62×51mmNATO(.308Winchester)M118SpecialBallroundthisdifference(or"drop")from700 to800meters(770–870 yd)is200millimetres(7.9 in).Thismeansthatifthesniperincorrectlyestimatedthedistanceas700meterswhenthetargetwasinfact800metersaway,thebulletwillbe200millimeterslowerthanexpectedbythetimeitreachesthetarget.[9][page needed] Laserrangefindersmaybeused,andrangeestimationisoftenthejobofbothpartiesinateam.[65]Oneusefulmethodofrangefindingwithoutalaserrangefinderiscomparingtheheightofthetarget(ornearbyobjects)totheirsizeonthemildotscope,ortakingaknowndistanceandusingsomesortofmeasure(utilitypoles,fenceposts)todeterminetheadditionaldistance.Theaveragehumanheadis150millimeters(5.9 in)inwidth,averagehumanshouldersare500millimeters(20 in)apartandtheaveragedistancefromaperson'spelvistothetopoftheirheadis1,000millimeters(39 in). Todeterminetherangetoatargetwithoutalaserrangefinder,thesnipermayusethemildotreticleonascopetoaccuratelyfindtherange.Mildotsareusedlikeaslideruletomeasuretheheightofatarget,andiftheheightisknown,therangecanbeaswell.Theheightofthetarget(inyards)×1000,dividedbytheheightofthetarget(inmils),givestherangeinyards.Thisisonlyingeneral,however,asbothscopemagnification(7×,40×)andmildotspacingchange.TheUSMCstandardisthat1mil(thatis,1milliradian)equals3.438MOA(minuteofarc,or,equivalently,minuteofangle),whiletheUSArmystandardis3.6MOA,chosensoastogiveadiameterof1yardatadistanceof1,000yards(orequivalently,adiameterof1meteratarangeof1kilometer.)Manycommercialmanufacturersuse3.5,splittingthedifference,sinceitiseasiertoworkwith.[9][page needed][verificationneeded] Itisimportanttonotethatangularmil(mil)isonlyanapproximationofamilliradiananddifferentorganizationsusedifferentapproximations. Atlongerranges,bulletdropplaysasignificantroleintargeting.[9][page needed]Theeffectcanbeestimatedfromachart,whichmaybememorizedortapedtotherifle,althoughsomescopescomewithBulletDropCompensator(BDC)systemsthatonlyrequiretherangebedialedin.Thesearetunedtobothaspecificclassofrifleandspecificammunition.Everybullettypeandloadwillhavedifferentballistics..308Federal175grain(11.3g)BTHPmatchshootsat2,600 ft/s(790 m/s).Zeroedat100yards(100 m),a16.2MOAadjustmentwouldhavetobemadetohitatargetat600yards(500 m).Ifthesamebulletwasshotwith168grain(10.9g),a17.1MOAadjustmentwouldbenecessary.[9][page needed] Shootinguphillordownhillisconfusingformanybecausegravitydoesnotactperpendiculartothedirectionthebulletistraveling.Thus,gravitymustbedividedintoitscomponentvectors.Onlythefractionofgravityequaltothecosineoftheangleoffirewithrespecttothehorizonaffectstherateoffallofthebullet,withtheremainderaddingorsubtractingnegligiblevelocitytothebulletalongitstrajectory.Tofindthecorrectzero,thesnipermultipliestheactualdistancetotherangebythisfractionandaimsasifthetargetwerethatdistanceaway.Forexample,asniperwhoobservesatarget500metersawayata45-degreeangledownhillwouldmultiplytherangebythecosineof45degrees,whichis0.707.Theresultingdistancewillbe353meters.Thisnumberisequaltothehorizontaldistancetothetarget.Allothervalues,suchaswindage,time-to-target,impactvelocity,andenergywillbecalculatedbasedontheactualrangeof500meters.Recently,asmalldeviceknownasacosineindicatorhasbeendeveloped.[9][page needed]Thisdeviceisclampedtothetubularbodyofthetelescopicsight,andgivesanindicativereadoutinnumericalformastherifleisaimedupordownatthetarget.[9][page needed]Thisistranslatedintoafigureusedtocomputethehorizontalrangetothetarget. Windageplaysasignificantrole,withtheeffectincreasingwithwindspeedorthedistanceoftheshot.Theslantofvisibleconvectionsnearthegroundcanbeusedtoestimatecrosswinds,andcorrectthepointofaim.Alladjustmentsforrange,wind,andelevationcanbeperformedbyaimingoffthetarget,called"holdingover"orKentuckywindage.[9][page needed]Alternatively,thescopecanbeadjustedsothatthepointofaimischangedtocompensateforthesefactors,sometimesreferredtoas"dialingin".Theshootermustremembertoreturnthescopetozeroedposition.Adjustingthescopeallowsformoreaccurateshots,becausethecross-hairscanbealignedwiththetargetmoreaccurately,butthesnipermustknowexactlywhatdifferencesthechangeswillhaveonthepoint-of-impactateachtargetrange.[9][page needed] Formovingtargets,thepoint-of-aimisaheadofthetargetinthedirectionofmovement.Knownas"leading"thetarget,theamountof"lead"dependsonthespeedandangleofthetarget'smovementaswellasthedistancetothetarget.Forthistechnique,holdingoveristhepreferredmethod.[9][page needed]Anticipatingthebehaviorofthetargetisnecessarytoaccuratelyplacetheshot.[9][page needed] Hidesitesandhidingtechniques[edit] Asniperwearingaghilliesuittoremainhiddeningrasslandterrain Theterm"hidesite"referstoacoveredandconcealedpositionfromwhichasniperandhisteamcanconductsurveillanceorfireattargets.Agoodhideconcealsandcamouflagesthesnipereffectively,providescoverfromenemyfireandallowsawideviewofthesurroundingarea. Themainpurposeofghilliesuitsandhidesitesistobreakuptheoutlineofapersonwitharifle. Manysnipersuseghilliesuitstohideandstayhidden.Ghilliesuitsvaryaccordingtotheterrainintowhichthesniperwishestoblend.Forexample,indrygrasslandthesniperwilltypicallywearaghilliesuitcoveredindeadgrass. Shotplacement[edit] Shotplacement,whichiswhereonthebodythesniperisaiming,varieswiththetypeofsniper.Militarysnipers,whogenerallydonotshootattargetsatlessthan300 m(330 yd),usuallyattemptbodyshots,aimingatthechest.Theseshotsdependontissuedamage,organtrauma,andbloodlosstokillthetarget.Bodyshotsareusedbecausethechestisalargertarget. Policesnipers,whogenerallyshootatmuchshorterdistances,mayattemptamorepreciseshotatparticularpartsofbodyorparticulardevices:inoneincidentin2007inMarseille,aGIPNsnipertookashotfrom80 m(87 yd)atthepistolofapoliceofficerthreateningtocommitsuicide,destroyingtheweaponandpreventingthepoliceofficerfromkillinghimself.[66] Inahigh-riskorhostage-takingsituationwhereasuspectisimminentlythreateningtokillahostage,policesnipersmaytakeheadshotstoensureaninstantkill.Thesnipersaimforthemedullaoblongatatoseverthespinefromthebrain.Whilethisisbelievedtopreventthetargetfromreflexivelyfiringtheirweapon,thereisevidencethatanybrain-hitissufficient.[67] Targetacquisition[edit] Mainarticle:Targetacquisition AU.S.Marinesniperwearingaghilliesuit. TwoIsraelDefenseForcessnipers(oneservesastheshooterandtheotherasaspotter),armedwiththe"Barak"(H-SPrecisionProSeries2000HTR)sniperweaponsystem,duringsnipingcontest. Snipersaretrainedforthedetection,identification,andlocationofatargetedsoldierinsufficientdetailtopermittheeffectiveemploymentoflethalandnon-lethalmeans.Sincemostkillsinmodernwarfarearebycrew-servedweapons,reconnaissanceisoneofthemosteffectiveusesofsnipers.Theyusetheiraerobicconditioning,infiltrationskillsandexcellentlong-distanceobservationequipment(opticalscopes)andtacticstoapproachandobservetheenemy.Inthisrole,theirrulesofengagementtypicallyletthemshootathigh-valuetargetsofopportunity,suchasenemyofficers. Thetargetsmaybepersonnelorhigh-valuemateriel(militaryequipmentandweapons)butmostoftentheytargetthemostimportantenemypersonnelsuchasofficersorspecialists(e.g.communicationsoperators)soastocausemaximumdisruptiontoenemyoperations.Otherpersonneltheymighttargetincludethosewhoposeanimmediatethreattothesniper,likedoghandlers,whoareoftenemployedinasearchforsnipers.Asniperidentifiesofficersbytheirappearanceandbehaviorsuchassymbolsofrank,talkingtoradiooperators,sittingasapassengerinacar,sittinginacarwithalargeradioantenna,havingmilitaryservants,binoculars/mapcasesortalkingandmovingpositionmorefrequently.Ifpossible,snipersshootindescendingorderbyrank,orifrankisunavailable,theyshoottodisruptcommunications. Somerifles,suchastheDenelNTW-20andVidhwansak,aredesignedforapurelyanti-materiel(AM)role,e.g.shootingturbinedisksofparkedaircraft,missileguidancepackages,expensiveoptics,andthebearings,tubesorwaveguidesofradarsets.Asniperequippedwiththecorrectriflecantargetradardishes,watercontainers,theenginesofvehicles,andanynumberofothertargets.Otherrifles,suchasthe.50caliberriflesproducedbyBarrettandMcMillan,arenotdesignedexclusivelyasAMrifles,butareoftenemployedinsuchaway,providingtherangeandpowerneededforAMapplicationsinalightweightpackagecomparedtomosttraditionalAMrifles.Othercalibers,suchasthe.408CheyenneTacticalandthe.338LapuaMagnum,aredesignedtobecapableoflimitedAMapplication,butareideallysuitedaslongrangeanti-personnelrounds. Relocating[edit] Ofteninsituationswithmultipletargets,snipersuserelocation.Afterfiringafewshotsfromacertainposition,snipersmoveunseentoanotherlocationbeforetheenemycandeterminewheretheyareandmountacounter-attack.Sniperswillfrequentlyusethistactictotheiradvantage,creatinganatmosphereofchaosandconfusion.Inother,rarersituations,relocationisusedtoeliminatethefactorofwind. Soundmasking[edit] Assniperriflesareoftenextremelypowerfulandconsequentlyloud,itiscommonforsniperstouseatechniqueknownassoundmasking.Whenemployedbyahighlyskilledmarksman,thistacticcanbeusedasasubstituteforanoisesuppressor.Veryloudsoundsintheenvironment,suchasartilleryshellsairburstingorclapsofthunder,canoftenmaskthesoundoftheshot.Thistechniqueisfrequentlyusedinclandestineoperations,infiltrationtactics,andguerrillawarfare. Psychologicalwarfare[edit] ASpecialReactionTeamwithanM24SniperWeaponSystemin2004. Duetothesurprisenatureofsniperfire,highlethalityofaimedshotsandfrustrationattheinabilitytolocateandcounterattacksnipers,snipertacticshaveasignificantnegativeeffectonmorale.Extensiveuseofsnipertacticscanbeusedtoinduceconstantstressandfearinopposingforces,makingthemafraidtomoveaboutorleavecover.Inmanyways,thepsychologicalimpactimposedbysnipersisquitesimilartothoseoflandmines,booby-traps,andIEDs(constantthreat,high"perevent"lethality,inabilitytostrikeback).[68][69][70] Historically,capturedsnipersareoftensummarilyexecuted.ThishappenedduringWorldWarI[71]andWorldWarII;[72]forexamplethesecondBiscariMassacrewhen36suspectedsniperswerelinedupandshoton14July1943. Asaresult,ifasniperisinimminentdangerofcapture,hemaydiscardanyitems(sniperrifle,laserrangefinder,etc.)whichmightindicatehisstatusasasniper.TheriskofcapturedsnipersbeingsummarilyexecutedisexplicitlyreferredtoinChapter6ofUSArmydoctrinedocumentFM3-060.11entitled"SNIPERANDCOUNTERSNIPERTACTICS,TECHNIQUES,ANDPROCEDURES": Historically,unitsthatsufferedheavyandcontinualcasualtiesfromurbansniperfireandwerefrustratedbytheirinabilitytostrikebackeffectivelyoftenhavebecomeenraged.Suchunitsmayoverreactandviolatethelawsoflandwarfareconcerningthetreatmentofcapturedsnipers.Thistendencyismagnifiediftheunithasbeenundertheintensestressofurbancombatforanextendedtime.Itisvitalthatcommandersandleadersatalllevelsunderstandthelawoflandwarfareandunderstandthepsychologicalpressuresofurbanwarfare.Itrequiresstrongleadershipandgreatmoralstrengthtopreventsoldiersfromreleasingtheirangerandfrustrationoncapturedsnipersorcivilianssuspectedofsnipingatthem.[73] ThenegativereputationandperceptionofsniperscanbetracedbacktotheAmericanRevolution,whenAmerican"Marksmen"intentionallytargetedBritishofficers,anactconsidereduncivilizedbytheBritishArmyatthetime(thisreputationwascementedduringtheBattleofSaratoga,whenBenedictArnoldallegedlyorderedhismarksmentotargetBritishGeneralSimonFraser,anactthatwonthebattleandFrenchsupport).[10][page needed]TheBritishsideusedspeciallyselectedsharpshootersaswell,oftenGermanmercenaries.[10][page needed] Todemoralizeenemytroops,sniperscanfollowpredictablepatterns.Duringthe26thofJulyMovementintheCubanRevolution,therevolutionariesledbyFidelCastroalwayskilledtheforemostmaninagroupofPresidentBatista'ssoldiers.[verificationneeded]Realizingthis,noneofBatista'smenwouldwalkfirst,asitwassuicidal.Thiseffectivelydecreasedthearmy'swillingnesstosearchforrebelbasesinthemountains.Analternativeapproachtothispsychologicalprocessistokillthesecondmanintherow,leadingtothepsychologicaleffectofnobodywantingtofollowthe"leader". Counter-snipertactics[edit] Mainarticle:Counter-snipertactics Theoccurrenceofsniperwarfarehasledtotheevolutionofmanycounter-snipertacticsinmodernmilitarystrategies.Theseaimtoreducethedamagecausedbyasnipertoanarmy,whichcanoftenbeharmfultobothcombatcapabilitiesandmorale. Theriskofdamagetoachainofcommandcanbereducedbyremovingorconcealingfeaturesthatwouldotherwiseindicateanofficer'srank.Modernarmiestendtoavoidsalutingofficersinthefield,andeliminaterankinsigniaonbattledressuniforms(BDU).Officerscanseekmaximumcoverbeforerevealingthemselvesasgoodcandidatesforeliminationthroughactionssuchasreadingmapsorusingradios. Friendlysniperscanbeusedtohunttheenemysniper.Besidesdirectobservation,defendingforcescanuseothertechniques.Theseincludecalculatingthetrajectoryofabulletbytriangulation.Traditionally,triangulationofasniper'spositionwasdonemanually,thoughradar-basedtechnologyhasrecentlybecomeavailable.Oncelocated,thedefenderscanattempttoapproachthesniperfromcoverandoverwhelmthem.TheUnitedStatesmilitaryisfundingaprojectknownasRedOwl(RobotEnhancedDetectionOutpostWithLasers),whichuseslaserandacousticsensorstodeterminetheexactdirectionfromwhichasniperroundhasbeenfired.[74] Themoreroundsfiredbyasniper,thegreaterthechancethetargethasoflocatinghim.Thus,attemptstodrawfireareoftenmade,sometimesbyofferingahelmetslightlyoutofconcealment,atacticsuccessfullyemployedintheWinterWarbytheFinnsknownas"Kylmä-Kalle"(ColdCharlie).[75]Theyusedashopmannequinorotherdolldressedasatemptingtarget,suchasanofficer.Thedollwasthenpresentedasifitwerearealmansloppilycoveringhimself.Usually,Sovietsniperswereunabletoresistthetemptationofanapparentlyeasykill.Oncetheanglewherethebulletcamefromwasdetermined,alargecalibergun,suchasaLahtiL-39"Norsupyssy"("Elephantrifle")anti-tankriflewasfiredatthesnipertokillhim. Othertacticsincludedirectingartilleryormortarfireontosuspectedsniperpositions,theuseofsmokescreens,placingtripwire-operatedmunitions,mines,orotherbooby-trapsnearsuspectedsniperpositions.Evendummytrip-wirescanbeplacedtohampersnipermovement.Ifanti-personnelminesareunavailable,itispossibletoimprovisebooby-trapsbyconnectingtrip-wirestohandgrenades,smokegrenadesorflares.Thoughthesemaynotkillasniper,theywillrevealtheirlocation.Booby-trapdevicescanbeplacednearlikelysniperhides,oralongtheprobableroutestoandfrompositions.Knowledgeofsniperfield-craftwillassistinthistask. Theuseofcanineunitshadbeenverysuccessful,especiallyduringtheVietnamWar.[76] Irregularandasymmetricwarfare[edit] Mainarticles:IrregularwarfareandAsymmetricwarfare AGeorgiansniperintheGeorgian-Ossetianconflict(2004) Theuseofsniping(inthesenseofshootingatrelativelylongrangefromaconcealedposition)tomurdercametopublicattentioninanumberofsensationalU.S.criminalcases,includingtheAustinsniperincidentof1966(CharlesWhitman),theJohnF.Kennedyassassination(LeeHarveyOswald),andtheBeltwaysniperattacksoflate2002(LeeBoydMalvo).However,theseincidentsusuallydonotinvolvetherangeorskillofmilitarysnipers;inallthreecasestheperpetratorshadU.S.militarytraining,butinotherspecialties.Newsreportswilloften(inaccurately)usethetermsnipertodescribeanyoneshootingwitharifleatanotherperson.[77] Snipinghasbeenusedinasymmetricwarfaresituations,forexampleintheNorthernIrelandTroubles,wherein1972,thebloodiestyearoftheconflict,themajorityofthesoldierskilledwereshotbyconcealedIRAriflemen.[78]Thereweresomeinstancesintheearly1990sofBritishsoldiersandRUCpersonnelbeingshotwith.50caliberBarrettriflesbysniperteamscollectivelyknownastheSouthArmaghsniper.[79] Thesniperisparticularlysuitedtocombatenvironmentswhereonesideisatadisadvantage.Acarefulsnipingstrategycanuseafewindividualsandresourcestothwartthemovementorotherprogressofamuchbetterequippedorlargerforce.Snipingenablesafewpersonstoinstilterrorinamuchlargerregularforce–regardlessofthesizeoftheforcethesnipersareattachedto.Itiswidelyacceptedthatsniping,whileeffectiveinspecificinstances,ismuchmoreeffectiveasabroadlydeployedpsychologicalattackorasaforce-multiplier.[80][81][82] Snipersarelesslikelytobetreatedmercifullythannon-snipersifcapturedbytheenemy.[72]Therationaleforthisisthatordinarysoldiersshootateachotherat'equalopportunity'whilstsniperstaketheirtimeintrackingandkillingindividualtargetsinamethodicalfashionwitharelativelylowriskofretaliation. WarinIraq[edit] Mainarticle:IraqWar In2003,theU.S.-ledmultinationalcoalitioncomposedofprimarilyU.S.andUKtroopsoccupiedIraqandattemptedtoestablishanewgovernmentinthecountry.However,shortlyaftertheinitialinvasion,violenceagainstcoalitionforcesandamongvarioussectariangroupsledtoasymmetricwarfarewiththeIraqiinsurgencyandcivilwarbetweenmanySunniandShiaIraqis. Bundeswehrsniperteaminposition,KunduzProvince,Afghanistan ThroughtoNovember2005theArmyhadattributed28of2,100U.S.deathstoenemysnipers.[83]In2006,itwasclaimedthatoneinsurgentsniper,"Juba",hadshotupto37Americansoldiers.[84] TrainingmaterialsobtainedbyU.S.intelligencehadamongitstipsforshootingU.S.troops,"Killingdoctorsandchaplainsissuggestedasameansofpsychologicalwarfare.",suggestingthatthosecasualtieswoulddemoralizeentireunits.[83][85] ArabSpring[edit] SniperactivitywasreportedduringtheArabSpringcivilunrestinLibyain2011,bothfromanti-governmental[86]andpro-governmental[87]supporters,andinSyriaatleastfrompro-government[88][89]forces. Notablemilitarymarksmenandsnipers[edit] Furtherinformation:Listofsnipers SergeantH.A.MarshallofTheCalgaryHighlanders.CanadiansnipersintheSecondWorldWarweretrainedscouts.SpecializedequipmentincludesLee–EnfieldNo.4MkI(T)rifleandscopecombinationandacamouflagedDenisonsmock.PACPhoto,byKenBell(September1944). Evenbeforefirearmswereavailable,soldierssuchasarcherswerespeciallytrainedaselitemarksmen. 17thcentury[edit] LordBrooke,whorepresentedtheParliamentariansintheEnglishCivilWar,wasthefirstrecordedBritishsnipervictim,killedbyaRoyalistsoldierhidinginabelltowerinLichfield. 18thcentury[edit] TimothyMurphy(AmericanRevolutionaryWar)–killedBritishGeneralSimonFraserduringthepivotalBattleofSaratoga,hamperingtheBritishadvancewhichhelpedcausethemtolosethebattle.[10][page needed] PatrickFerguson(AmericanRevolutionaryWar)–developeroftheworld'sfirstbreech-loadedmilitaryrifle(whichadvancedsnipingandsharpshootingtactics),foughtwithhisCorpsofRiflemen(recruitedfromthe6thand14thFoot)attheBattleofBrandywine,wherehemayhavepassedupachancetoshootGeorgeWashington.[90] 19thcentury[edit] NapoleonicWars–UseofMarinesharpshootersinthemasttopswascommonusageinnaviesoftheperiod,andAdmiralNelson'sdeathatTrafalgarisattributedtotheactionsofFrenchsharpshooters.TheBritishArmydevelopedtheconceptofdirectedfire(asopposedtomassiveunaimedvolleys)andformedRifleregiments,notablythe95thandthe60thwhoworegreenjacketsinsteadoftheusualredcoats.FightingasSkirmishers,usuallyinpairsandtrustedtochoosetheirowntargets,theywroughthavocamongsttheFrenchduringthePeninsularWar. BritishRiflemanThomasPlunkett(PeninsularWar)–shotFrenchGeneralColbertandoneofhisaidesatarangeofbetween200and600metres(219and656 yd)usingaBakerrifle.[91] ColonelHiramBerdan(AmericanCivilWar)–commanded1stand2ndUSSharpshooters,whoweretrainedandequippedUnionmarksmenwiththe.52caliberSharpsRifle.IthasbeenclaimedthatBerdan'sunitskilledmoreenemiesthananyotherintheUnionArmy.[10][page needed] JackHinson(AmericanCivilWar)recorded36"kills"onhiscustom-made.50caliberKentuckylongriflewithironsights.[92] DuringtheAmericanCivilWar,anunidentifiedConfederatesnipershotMajorGeneralJohnSedgwickduringtheBattleofSpotsylvaniaCourtHouseprobablywithaBritishWhitworthtargetrifleatthethen-incredibledistanceofminimum730metres(798 yd).BenPowellofthe12thSouthCarolinaclaimedcredit,althoughhisaccounthasbeendiscountedbecausethegeneralheshotatwithaWhitworthrifledmusketwasmounted,probablyBrigGen.WilliamH.Morris.Uniontroopsfromthe6thVermontclaimtohaveshotanunidentifiedsharpshooterastheycrossedthefieldsseekingrevenge.[93]TheshootingofSedgewickcausedadministrativedelaysintheUnion'sattackandledtoConfederatevictory.Sedgwickignoredadvicetotakecover,hislastwordsaccordingtourbanlegendbeing,"Theycouldn'thitanelephantatthisdist-",whereuponhewasshot.Inreality,hewasshotafewminuteslater.[10][page needed] MajorFrederickRussellBurnham–assassinatedMlimo,theNdebelereligiousleader,inhiscaveinMatoboHills,Rhodesia,effectivelyendingtheSecondMatabeleWar(1896).[94]BurnhamstartedasacowboyandIndiantrackerintheAmericanOldWest,buthelefttheUnitedStatestoscoutinAfricaandwentontocommandtheBritishArmyScoutsintheSecondBoerWar.Forhisabilitytotrack,evenatnight,theAfricansdubbedhim,He-who-sees-in-the-dark,[95]butinthepresshebecamemorewidelyknownasEngland'sAmericanScout.[96] 20thcentury[edit] SimoHäyhä,knownamongenemiesbythenickname"WhiteDeath",isgenerallyrecognizedastheworld'sdeadliestmilitarysniperofalltime.[97][98][99] CarlosHathcock,nicknamed"WhiteFeather"bytheNorthVietnameseArmy(NVA),wasalegendaryUSMCsniperwithaservicerecordof93confirmedkills. BillySing(WorldWarI)–AnAustraliansniperwithatleast150confirmedkillsduringtheGallipoliCampaign;hemayhavehadcloseto300killsintotalatGallipoli,[100]andwentontofightattheWesternFront. FrancisPegahmagabow(WorldWarI)–NativeCanadiansnipercreditedwith378kills,andanunknownnumberofunconfirmedkills.Heonlytookcreditforkillswhentheywereverifiedbyanofficer.[101] FinnishLanceCorporalSimoHäyhä,nicknamed"WhiteDeath",[97]wasasniperduringtheWinterWarandisregardedbymanyasthemosteffectivesniperinthehistoryofwarfare,beingcreditedwithkillingupto705(505sniperkills,andestimated200sub-machinegunkills)Sovietsoldiersaccomplishedinfewerthan100days.[97][98][99]HäyhäusedaWhiteGuardM/28"Pystykorva"or"Spitz",variantoftheRussianMosin–Nagantrifle.[97] MikhailIlyichSurkovhasbeensaidtohavekilled702enemytroops,VladimirGavrilovichSalbievwith601confirmedkills,VasilijKvachantiradzewith534andIvanSidorenkowith~500.[102] LieutenantLyudmilaPavlichenko(WorldWarII)–femaleSovietsniperwith309confirmedkills,makingherthemostsuccessfulfemalesniperinhistory.[103] JuniorLieutenantVasilyZaytsev(WorldWarII)–creditedwithkillingabout200GermansoldiersduringtheBattleofStalingrad,[104]heisportrayedinthefilmEnemyattheGatesandinthebookWaroftheRats;botharefictionalizedaccounts. SemyonNomokonovkilled367persons,includingageneral.[102] Gefreiter(Private)MatthäusHetzenauer(WorldWarII)–Austriansniperwhowascreditedwith345confirmedkills[105]ontheEasternFront,themostsuccessfulintheWehrmacht. Obergefreiter(PrivateFirstClass)Josef'Sepp'Allerberger(WorldWarII)–Austriansnipercreditedwith257confirmedkillsontheEasternFront.[citationneeded](thesamesituationashasHetzenauer–Germanofficersseldomconfirmedkills). HelmutWirnsberger–Germansniper,whohasservedin3.GebirgsjaegerdivisionduringWWIIandcredited64confirmedkills.[106] ChineseSergeantTungChihYehclaimedtohaveshotandkilledover100ImperialJapaneseArmy(IJA)soldiersusingaChiangKai-ShekrifleinaroundYangtzeduringtheSecondSino-JapaneseWar.[107] ZhangTaofang(Chinese:张桃芳;TraditionalChinese:張桃芳;Wade–Giles:ZhangTao-fang)wasaChinesesoldierduringtheKoreanWar.Heiscreditedwith214confirmedkillsin32dayswithoutusingasnipermagnifyingscope.[44][108] CliveHulmewasaNewZealandrecipientoftheVictoriaCross,thehighestandmostprestigiousawardforgallantryinthefaceoftheenemythatcanbeawardedtoBritishandCommonwealthforces.Heiscreditedwithstalkingandkilling33GermansnipersintheBattleofCrete.[109] IanRobertsonservedasasniperwithAustralia's3RARpostWorldWarII.HebecameoneofthemosteffectivesnipersduringtheKoreanWarwhereinoneinstancehekilled30enemiesinasinglemorning.[110] RozaShanina–SovietsniperduringWorldWarII,creditedwith59confirmedkills,includingtwelvesoldiersduringtheBattleofVilnius.[111] GunnerySergeantCarlosHathcock(VietnamWar)–achieved93confirmedkillsbutbelievedtohaveover200unconfirmedkills.Withatelescopic-scoped.50caliberM2Browningheavymachinegun,hesetaworldrecordforthelongestrecordedsniperkillat2,286 m(2,500 yd)whichstoodfor35yearsuntil2002.[112][113][114] ChuckMawhinney(VietnamWar)–103confirmedand216probablekills.[115] AdelbertF.WaldronIII(VietnamWar)–achieved109confirmedkills.[116] MasterSgt.GaryGordonandSgt.FirstClassRandyShughart(Somalia:OperationGothicSerpent)–wereDeltaForcesniperswhowereawardedtheMedalofHonorfortheirfatalattempttoprotecttheinjuredcrewofadownedhelicopterduringtheBattleofMogadishu.[117]ThisactionwaslaterdramatizedinthefilmBlackHawkDown. 21stcentury[edit] Russiansniperinwintercamouflage BritishArmyCoHCraigHarrisonoftheHouseholdCavalrysuccessfullyengagedtwoTalibanmachinegunnerssouthofMusaQalainHelmandProvinceinAfghanistaninNovember2009atarangeof2,475 m(2,707 yd),usinganL115A3LongRangeRifleriflechamberedin.338LapuaMagnum.Thesewerethelongestrecordedandconfirmedsniperkillsinhistory.[118][119][120][121] CanadianCorporalRobFurlong,formerlyofthePPCLI(OperationAnaconda,Afghanistan)–achievedarecordedandconfirmedsniperkillat2,430 m(2,657 yd)in2002usinga.50caliber(12.7 mm)McMillanTAC-50rifle.[122] CanadianMasterCorporalArronPerry,formerlyofthePPCLI(OperationAnaconda,Afghanistan)–brieflyheldtherecordforthelongestrecordedandconfirmedsniperkillat2,310 m(2,526 yd)in2002aftereclipsingU.S.MarineGunnerySergeantCarlosHathcock'spreviousrecordestablishedin1967.Perryuseda.50caliber(12.7 mm)McMillanTAC-50rifle.[122] U.S.NavyChiefChrisKyleofSEALTeamThree,duringfourdeploymentstoIraqbetween2003and2009,had255kills,160ofwhichareconfirmedbythePentagon,makinghimthedeadliestmarksmaninUSmilitaryhistory.DuringtheSecondBattleofFallujahalone,whenU.S.Marinesfoughtrunningbattlesinthestreetswithseveralthousandinsurgents,hekilled40enemypersonnel.ForhisdeadlyrecordasamarksmanduringhisdeploymenttoRamadi,theinsurgentsnamedhim'Al-ShaitanRamad'–theDevilofRahmadi–andputa$20,000bountyonhishead.Kylewashonorablydischargedin2009,andon2February2013,wasmurderedatashootingrangealongwithanothervictiminTexasbyaMarineveteransufferingfromPTSD.SubjectofthemovieAmericanSniper. U.S.MarineCorpsStaffSergeantSteveReichert–KilledanIraqiinsurgentandpossiblyinjuredtwomorehidingbehindabrickwallwithashotfrom1mileinLutayfiyah,Iraqon9April2004.ReichertwasusingaBarrettM82A3.50BMGrifleloadedwithRaufossMk211multipurposerounds.DuringthesameengagementReicherteliminatedanIraqimachinegunnerpinningdownasquadofMarinesfromadistanceof1,614 m(1,765 yd).[123] U.S.ArmyStaffSergeantJimGilliland–Previouslyheldtherecordforthelongestrecordedconfirmedkillwitha7.62×51mmNATOrifleat1,250 m(1,367 yd)withaM24,whileengaginganIraqiinsurgentsniperinRamadi,Iraqon27September2005.[124] U.S.ArmySGTChristopherDaleAbbott:AspartofaU.S.ArmyCounterIEDteam(CIEDT)inIraqin2007–2008,herecorded22confirmedkillswithanM247.62×51mmNATOrifleforaperiodofonly7monthsbeforebeinginjuredandsentoutoftheater.HeandhisteamweretaskedwithseekingoutinsurgentsplacingIEDsalongfrequentlyusedMainSupplyRoutesandAlternateSupplyRoutes.[125][126] U.S.ArmyStaffSergeantTimothyL.Kellner–regardedasoneofthetopsnipersstillactiveintheU.S.Army,with78confirmedkillsduringtheIraqWarand3inHaiti.[127] CanadianMasterCorporalGrahamRagsdaleusinga7.62mmC-3registered20confirmedkillsovertendaysduringOperationAnaconda. SriLankanArmySniper,CorporalI.R.Premasirialias"Nero",ofthe5thBattalionintheGajabaRegimenthas180confirmedTamilTigerskills.[128] Iraqiinsurgent"Juba",asniperwhofeaturesinseveralpropagandavideos.Jubahasallegedlyshot37Americansoldiers,althoughwhetherJubaisarealindividualisunknown.Hemaybeaconstructedcompositeofanumberofinsurgentsnipers.[129] CorporalBenRoberts-SmithVCMGoftheAustralianSpecialAirServiceRegimentwasawardedtheMedalofGallantryforhisactionsin2006duringOperationPerthintheChoraValleyofOruzganProvince,Afghanistan.Inthataction,patrolsniperRoberts-Smithpreventedanoutnumberedpatrolfrombeingoverrunbyanti-coalitionmilitiawithsniperfire.[130]Subsequently,inearly2011,hebecamethesecondAustraliantobeawardedtheVictoriaCrossonOperationSlipperinAfghanistan.DuringtheShahWaliKotOffensiveinJune2010,havingprovidedsniperover-watchforgroundforcesfromahelicopterwithaM14EBRrifle,Roberts-Smithwasplacedintoafirefightbyhelicopterandsubsequentlyeliminatedmachinegunpositions.[131] U.S.ArmyStaffSergeantJustinMorales–AspartoftheU.S.ArmyCIST(CounterInsurgentSniperTeam)inIraq,herecorded27confirmedkillswithanM247.62×51mmNATOrifle.From2005to2006,MoralesandhisteaminBalad,IraqweretaskedwithseekingoutinsurgentsplacingIEDsalongMainSupplyRoutesandAlternateSupplyRoutes.[125] DuringMay2017,inIraqaCanadianArmyJointTaskForce2sniperusingaMcMillanTac-50sniperriflesetanewworldrecordforthelongestconfirmedkillshotatadistanceof3,540 m(3,871 yd).[132]Theshotwasfiredfromahigh-risebuildingandthebullettravelledfor"under10seconds"beforehittingthetarget,anISISinsurgent.[132] PopularMobilizationForcesvolunteerAbuTahsinal-SalhiwasaShiaIraqiveteransniperwith350claimedISISkills. Seealso[edit] Jäger(infantry) Listofsnipers Listofsniperrifles Longestrecordedsniperkills OperationFoxley–plantokillAdolfHitlerusingasniper SniperAlley SnipersoftheSovietUnion SouthArmaghSniper(1990–97) Specialforces References[edit] ^"WhatisaSniperintheArmy&OtherMilitaryBranches?WhatistheLongestSniperRifleShot?–ShootingRangeIndustries".ShootingRangeIndustries.31July2017.Retrieved23November2017. ^abcdePegler,Martin(2004).Outofnowhere :ahistoryofthemilitarysniper.Oxford:OspreyPublishing.p. 16.ISBN 1-84176-854-5.OCLC 56654780. ^abcd"Snipe".OnlineEtymologyDictionary.Retrieved8April2019. ^"Sniper–Army.caWiki".army.ca.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2July2017.Retrieved17October2018. ^IntheEdinburghAdvertiser,23June1801,canbefoundthefollowingquoteinapieceabouttheNorthBritishMilitia;"ThisRegimenthasseveralFieldPieces,andtwocompaniesofSharpShooters,whichareverynecessaryinthemodernStileofWar". ^abcdePegler,Martin(2004).Outofnowhere :ahistoryofthemilitarysniper.Oxford:OspreyPublishing.p. 30.ISBN 1-84176-854-5.OCLC 56654780. ^Pegler,Martin(2004).Outofnowhere :ahistoryofthemilitarysniper.Oxford:OspreyPublishing.p. 14.ISBN 1-84176-854-5.OCLC 56654780. ^Plaster2007 ^abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzaaabacPlaster1993 ^abcdefSenich1988 ^abcdefgSenich1982 ^abShore1988,p. 316 ^Freigegebenab12Jahren(2January2008)."SnipersduringtheFirstandSecondWorldWars":infotakenfrom:Zeitgeschichte–SpezialeinheitenimZweitenWeltkrieg:Scharfschützen(Documentaryfilm)(inGerman).EMSGmbH.Eventoccursat57mins.EAN:4020974153959. ^Valdes,Robert(11June2004)."HowMilitarySnipersWork".HowStuffWorks. ^abShah,Hiren(12September2016)."TheSniperandtheSpotter".FastTimesinTech|BlogbyHirenShah.Retrieved24March2019. ^ab"TheSniper,SWATTeamsGrowinNumber".CBSNews.25January2001.Archivedfromtheoriginalon4November2012.Retrieved4May2008. ^"GastoniaPoliceDepartment–SniperSchool".Archivedfromtheoriginalon22July2012.Retrieved4May2008. ^"Policesniperwatchesfromroof,Sydney".AustralianBroadcastingCorporation.6September2007.Retrieved4May2008. ^Owens,Bob."Remembering"TheShotSeen'RoundTheWorld"".bearingarms.com. ^Scanlon,JamesJ.(2010)."TheColumbusOhioPoliceS.W.A.T.Platoon28thAnniversary".Archivedfromtheoriginalon6December2003.Retrieved7May2010.–Newsfootageofsnipershootinggunoutofapersonshand ^Fife,Robert(21June2017)."Canadianelitespecialforcessnipersetsrecord-breakingkillshotinIraq".TheGlobeandMail.Retrieved22June2017. ^Smith,Michael(2May2010)"Hotshotsniperinone-and-a-halfmiledoublekill".TheSundayTimes.(subscriptionrequired) ^abArnold,Adam(3May2010)."SupersniperkillsTaliban1.5milesaway".SkyNews.SkyUK.Archivedfromtheoriginalon14May2015.Retrieved7June2015.Conditionswereperfect,nowind,mildweather,clearvisibility. ^"QuickTargetUnlimitedLapuaEditionexteriorballisticssoftware".29June2009.Archivedfromtheoriginalon29June2009.Retrieved1April2013. ^"Lapua:Downloads".29June2009.Archivedfromtheoriginalon29June2009. ^"L96SniperRifleandL115A3LongRangeRifle".Mod.uk.20February2007.Archivedfromtheoriginalon7June2011.Retrieved1June2011. ^"WeatherUndergroundHistoryforKandahar,Afghanistan–MonthofNovember2009".Wunderground.com.21May2011.Retrieved1June2011. ^"Britsnipermakesdouble-killat1.54mileswith.338LapuaMag".accurateshooter.com.3May2010.Retrieved7June2015. ^GregoryMast;HansHalberstadt(January2007).ToBeaMilitarySniper.ZenithImprint.p. 18.ISBN 978-0-7603-3002-9.Retrieved12July2013. ^AlexanderRose(21October2008).AmericanRifle:ABiography.NewYork:RandomHousePublishingGroup.p. 46.ISBN 978-0-440-33809-3.Retrieved12July2013. ^AndyDougan(1June2006).ThroughtheCrosshairs:AHistoryofSnipers.DaCapoPress,Incorporated.p. 47.ISBN 978-0-7867-1773-6.Retrieved12July2013. ^RobertLeckie(24August2010).GeorgeWashington'sWar:TheSagaoftheAmericanRevolution.NewYork:HarperCollins.p. 513.ISBN 978-0-06-201536-5.Retrieved12July2013. ^Edgerton,RobertB.(2010).TheFalloftheAsanteEmpire:TheHundred-YearWarForAfrica'sGoldCoast.p. 54.ISBN 9781451603736. ^"WhitworthRifle".AmericanCivilWarStories. ^"MinutesofproceedingsoftheInstitutionofCivilEngineers,Volume19"ByInstitutionofCivilEngineers(GreatBritain) ^Pegler,Martin(2011).OutofNowhere:Ahistoryofthemilitarysniper,fromtheSharpshootertoAfghanistan.OspreyPublishing.ISBN 9781849088756.Retrieved18November2013. ^"MinutesofproceedingsoftheInstitutionofCivilEngineers".InstitutionofCivilEngineers(GreatBritain),1860,p.12 ^Rhea,GordonC.(1997).TheBattlesforSpotsylvaniaCourtHouseandtheRoadtoYellowTavern,May7–12,1864.Louisiana:LouisianaStateUniversityPress.p. 94.ISBN 978-0-8071-2136-8.Retrieved12July2013. ^DavidEicher(14March2005).CivilWarBattlefields:ATouringGuide.TaylorTradePublications.pp. 73–75.ISBN 978-1-58979-181-7.Retrieved12July2013. ^JohnF.CummingsIII(June2011).SpotsylvaniaCounty.ArcadiaPublishing.p. 36.ISBN 978-0-7385-8246-7.Retrieved12July2013. ^Gallagher,Gary(1February2010).SpotsylvaniaCampaign.NorthCarolina:UNCPressBooks.p. 297.ISBN 978-0-8078-9837-6.Retrieved12July2013. ^abPlaster2007,p. 5 ^abCopper,Jeff(July1994)."Cooper'sScoutrifleagunforallreasons:whetheritbeforhuntingorindividualcombat,thisconceptmayjustbetheultimatedual-purposerifle".Guns&Ammo.38(7):74.ISSN 0017-5684. ^abPegler2006aharvnberror:notarget:CITEREFPegler2006a(help) ^"LovatScouts,Sharpshooters–UnitedKingdom". ^Hesketh-Prichard,H.V.(1994).SnipinginFrance.pp. ChapterXI.ISBN 0-85052-426-1. ^ab"TrenchLoopholes,LeLinge".16March2014. ^Parker1924,pp. 211–212 ^Parker,Eric.HeskethPrichard.p. 212. ^Hesketh-Prichard,H.V.(1994).SnipinginFrance.pp. Chapter5.ISBN 0-85052-426-1. ^Hesketh-Prichard,H.V.(1994).SnipinginFrance.pp. Chapter2.ISBN 0-85052-426-1. ^Prichard&Vernon2004,pp. 10,19 ^Prichard,HeskethVernonHesketh(19April1920)."SnipinginFrance :withnotesonthescientifictrainingofscouts,observers,andsnipers".NewYork :E.P.Dutton–viaInternetArchive. ^Gilbert,Adrian(1996).Sniper :theskills,theweapons,andtheexperiences(St.Martin's ed.).NewYork:St.Martin'sPaperbacks.p. 45.ISBN 0-312-95766-1.OCLC 34124115. ^Brookesmith,Peter(2006).Sniper :training,techniquesandweapons(2nd ed.).NewYork:ThomasDunneBooks.p. 77.ISBN 0-312-36290-0.OCLC 122381816. ^"SnipinginFrancebyMajorH.Hesketh-Prichard(1920)p.239"(PDF).Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)on30November2011. ^"DoughboySniperRifles".www.americanrifleman.org. ^"TheSniperLogBook—WorldWarII".Snipercentral.com.Retrieved1June2011. ^Rayment,Sean(30April2006)."Thelongview".TheDailyTelegraph.London.Archivedfromtheoriginalon11January2022.Retrieved30March2009. ^PeterR.Senich:GermanSniper1914–45,Page91 ^"Archivedcopy".Archivedfromtheoriginalon19February2012.Retrieved6February2011.{{citeweb}}:CS1maint:archivedcopyastitle(link) ^"СнайперскоедвижениевРККА|Историяснайперскогоискусства".Shotgun.com.ua.Retrieved1June2011. ^"ATK.com"(PDF).ATK.com.Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)on24August2007.Retrieved1June2011. ^Gavrilov,Yuri"Takeabead:Armygetssniperschools"Rossiiskayagazeta19October2011. ^Plaster2006,p. 346 ^Pardini,Sèverine(2August2007)."J'aifaitmouchesursonarmeà80mètrespourlesauver(ENG:Ihithisweaponat80meterstosavehim)".laprovence.com.Retrieved14May2010. ^MartinJDougherty(2012).Sniper:SASandEliteForcesGuide.AmberBooks.ISBN 9781909160385.Retrieved12January2018. ^GregoryMast;HansHalberstadt(January2007).ToBeaMilitarySniper.ZenithImprint.p. 22.ISBN 978-0-7603-3002-9.Retrieved12July2013. ^HansHalberstadt(18March2008).TriggerMen:ShadowTeam,Spider-Man,theMagnificentBastards,andtheAmericanCombatSniper.St.Martin'sPress.p. 29.ISBN 978-0-312-35472-5.Retrieved12July2013. ^MartinPegler(20September2011).OutofNowhere:Ahistoryofthemilitarysniper,fromtheSharpshootertoAfghanistan.OspreyPublishing.p. 21.ISBN 978-1-84908-875-6.Retrieved12July2013. ^Duffy,Michael(22August2009)."Encyclopedia–Snipers".firstworldwar.com.Retrieved10May2010. ^abPage,Lewis(28November2008)."Snipers–Cowardlyassassins,orsurgicalsoldiers?".TheRegister.Retrieved10May2010. ^"Sniperandcountersnipertactics,techniques,andprocedures".GlobalSecurity.org.27April2005.Retrieved10May2010. ^Bray,Hiawatha(4October2005)."Robotic-vacuummaker,BUteamuponanti-sniperdevice".TheBostonGlobe. ^PetriSarjanen(1998).Valkoinenkuolema:Talvisodanlegendaarisentarkka-ampujanSimoHäyhäntarina.ISBN 952-5170-05-5 ^"K-9History:Vietnam,1960–1975".www.k9history.com.Archivedfromtheoriginalon14January2018.Retrieved10November2017. ^Dockery,Kevin(3July2007).StalkersandShooters:AHistoryofSnipers.NewYork:PenguinGroupUS.pp. 170–171.ISBN 978-1-4406-2890-0.Retrieved12July2013. ^Taylor1997,p. 132–"In1971,theProvisionalIRAshotdeadforty-twoBritishsoldiers.In1972,thisfigurerosetosixty-four,mostofthemkilledbysnipers." ^Jackson, Mike(2006).OperationBanner:AnAnalysisofMilitaryOperationsinNorthernIrelandArchived3March2016attheWaybackMachine.MoD,ArmyCode71842 ^CraigRoberts;CharlesW.Sasser(1July2004).CrosshairsontheKillZone:AmericanCombatSnipers,VietnamthroughOperationIraqiFreedom.PocketBooks.p. 47.ISBN 978-1-4165-0362-0. ^PatFarey;MarkSpicer(1May2009).Sniping:AnIllustratedHistory.MBIPublishingCompany.pp. 225–227.ISBN 978-0-7603-3717-2. ^Gilbert,Adrian(1996)."TheSniperToday".Sniper:MasterofTerrain,Technology,AndTiming,HeIsAHunterofHumanPreyandtheMilitary'sMostFearedFighter.St.Martin'sPress.pp. 245–247.ISBN 978-0-312-95766-7. ^abDiamond,John(27July2006)."Insurgentsniperssentaftertroops".USAToday.Retrieved21March2008. ^Holmes,Paul(29October2006)."U.S.militaryprobessniperthreatinBaghdad".Reutersnewsservice.Archivedfromtheoriginalon13March2009.Retrieved21March2008. ^Ponder,Jon(25October2006)."IraqiInsurgentSnipersTargetU.S.Medics,EngineersandChaplains".PensitoReview.Archivedfromtheoriginalon16October2015.Retrieved21March2008. ^Laessing,Ulf(24August2011)."RebelssharefirepowerassnipersmenaceTripoli".Reuters.Archivedfromtheoriginalon24August2011.Retrieved25February2019. ^"InternationalNews|WorldNews".Abcnews.go.com.ABCNewsNetwork.ABCNewsInternetVentures.Retrieved1April2013. ^ElectronLibre."SnipersarestillathreatinSyria".France24.Archivedfromtheoriginalon31January2012.Retrieved30January2012. ^"Violencekills29acrossSyria:activists".AFP.30January2012.Archivedfromtheoriginalon25January2013.Retrieved1April2013–viaGoogle.com. ^Plaster2007,pp. 39–45,53–55. ^StuartHadawayRiflemanThomasPlunkett:'APatternfortheBattalion.' ^McKenney,Tom(23September2010).JackHinson'sOne-manWar:Acivilwarsniper.PelicanPublishing.p. 79.ISBN 978-1-4556-0646-7. ^Rhea,GordonC.TheBattlesforSpotsylvaniaCourtHouseandtheRoadtoYellowTavern7–12May1864.BatonRouge:LouisianaStateUniversityPress,1997.ISBN 0-8071-3067-2pp93–96 ^"KilledtheMatabeleGod:Burnham,theAmericanscout,mayenduprising".TheNewYorkTimes.25June1896.ISSN 0093-1179. ^West,JamesE.;PeterO.Lamb;illustratedbyLordBaden-Powell(1932).He-who-sees-in-the-dark;theboys'storyofFrederickBurnham,theAmericanscout.Brewer,WarrenandPutnam.{{citebook}}:CS1maint:multiplenames:authorslist(link) ^"England'sAmericanScout".NewYorkTimes(LondonChronicle).5May1901.ISSN 0362-4331. ^abcdValle,Orvelin."Thissniper,knownas'TheWhiteDeath,'iscreditedwithmorethan500kills".BusinessInsider. ^ab"HowaFinnishfarmerbecametheworld'sdeadliestsniper".Foreigner.fi. ^abSerena,Katie(27March2018)."How"WhiteDeath"SimoHäyhäBecameTheDeadliestSniperInHistory".AllThat'sInteresting. ^Hamilton,J.C.M.(2008):GallipoliSniper:ThelifeofBillySing.Sydney:PanMacmillanAustralia.(ISBN 978-1-4050-3865-2) ^Brownlie,Robin(2003).AFatherlyEye:IndianAgents,GovernmentPower,andAboriginalResistanceinOntario,1918–1939.UniversityofTorontoPress.p. 63.ISBN 978-0-19-541784-5. ^ab"topWWIIsnipers".Archivedfromtheoriginalon1January2016.Retrieved13October2008. ^Sakaida&Hook2003,pp. 31–32 ^(inRussian)BiographyatthewebsiteonHeroesoftheSovietUnionandRussia ^"MatthäusHetzenauer,Austriansniperwith345confirmedkills,1944".rarehistoricalphotos.com.Retrieved28March2017. ^Storr,Jim(2009).Thehumanfaceofwar.NewYork:Continuum.p. 159.ISBN 9781847065230. ^"OspreyMen-at-Arms424:TheChineseArmy1937–1949 :WorldWarIIandCivilWar".Militaryfocus.com.Retrieved1April2013. ^Peglerpg.265 ^Taonga,NewZealandMinistryforCultureandHeritageTeManatu."Hulme,AlfredClive".teara.govt.nz. ^"Asniper'stale".TheSydneyMorningHerald.26April2004. ^ЕвгенийОвсянкин(2010).КогдаРодинавопасности[WhentheMotherlandisindanger](inRussian).Nord.pomorsu.ru.Archivedfromtheoriginalon17April2013.Retrieved25March2013. ^LanceCpl.GeorgeJ.Papastrat(29March2007)."RangecomplexnamedafterfamousVietnamsniper".MarineCorpsNews.Retrieved24March2008....famousHathcockshotthatkilledanenemyfrommorethan2,500yards(2,300 m)away...[deadlink] ^"SniperRifles".GlobalSecurity.org.Retrieved24March2008.Whena24-year-oldMarinesharpshooternamedCarlosNormanHathcockIIchalkedupthefarthestrecordedkillinthehistoryofsniping–2,500yards(1.42miles,adistancegreaterthan22footballfields)inFebruary1967hefiredaBrowningM2.50Cal.MachineGun. ^Sgt.Grit(2006)."MarineCorpsSniperCarlosN.HathcockII".Archivedfromtheoriginalon20February2012.Retrieved24March2008.VietCongshotdeadbyaroundfiredfromascope-mountedBrowningM-2.50calibermachinegunattheunbelievablerangeof2,500yards(2,300 m). ^"ChuckMawhinney".www.chuckmawhinney.com.Retrieved28March2017. ^"AdelbertF.WaldronIII–SniperCentral".SniperCentral.10October2014.Retrieved28March2017. ^"MedalofHonorrecipients:SomaliaCampaign".UnitedStatesArmyCenterofMilitaryHistory.3August2009.Archivedfromtheoriginalon22December2012.Retrieved29October2018. ^Smith2010 ^Chandler2010harvnberror:notarget:CITEREFChandler2010(help) ^Alpert2010 ^Drury2010harvnberror:notarget:CITEREFDrury2010(help) ^abFriscolanti,Michael(15May2006)."Wewereabandoned".Maclean's.Archivedfromtheoriginalon21August2010.Retrieved3May2010. ^"MarineSniperReceivesBronzeStarMedalforValor".Defense.gov.Retrieved1June2011. ^TheWashingtonTimes,U.S.Armysnipernailsrecordshot,11:16 pm,Sunday,15January2006 ^abJohnPike."SniperRifles".Globalsecurity.org.Retrieved1June2011. ^JohnD."SniperRifles".Globalsecurity.org.Retrieved1June2011. ^"TheSniperLogBook".snipercentral.com.2010.Retrieved9May2010. ^Armytoldnoheavyweapons,notPrabhaArchived15June2009attheWaybackMachineByTissaRavindraPerera.Retrieved9February2010. ^Reuters(29October2006)."U.S.militaryprobessniperthreatinBaghdad".alertnet.org.Reuters.Retrieved9May2010. ^Nicholson,Brendan(23April2011)."YouthinkI'mbrave?Meetmymates:BenRoberts-Smith".TheAustralian.Retrieved11February2012. ^Nicholson,Brendan(24January2011)."BattlefieldmateshipworthyofVC".TheAustralian.Retrieved11February2012. ^ab"Canadianelitespecialforcessnipermakesrecord-breakingkillshotinIraq"–viaTheGlobeandMail. Furtherreading[edit] Mainarticle:Listofbooks,articlesanddocumentariesaboutsnipers Alpert,Lukas(2May2010)."SniperkillsQaeda-from1½mi.away".NewYorkPost.Archivedfromtheoriginalon6May2010.Retrieved3May2010. Bartlett,Derrick(12April2005)."SniperTactics:GoingfortheGun".Retrieved26January2006. Brookesmith,Peter(2007).Sniper:training,techniquesandweapons(2007 ed.).St.Martin'sPress.ISBN 978-0-312-36290-4.-Totalpages:192 Dougan,Andy(2016).OneShot,OneKill:AHistoryoftheSniper.WilliamCollins.ISBN 978-0-00-818940-2. Gilbert,Adrian(1996).Sniper:TheSkills,theWeapons,andtheExperiences(1996 ed.).St.Martin'sPaperbacks.ISBN 978-0-312-95766-7.352pages Law,CliveM.(2005).WithoutWarning:CanadianSniperEquipmentofthe20thCentury.ServicePublications.ISBN 1-894581-16-4. Neville,Leigh(2016).ModernSnipers.OspreyPublishing.ISBN 978-1-4728-1534-7. Pegler,Martin(2006).OutofNowhere:AHistoryoftheMilitarySniper(2006 ed.).OspreyPublishing.ISBN 978-1-84603-140-3. Parker,Eric(1924).HeskethPrichard,D.S.O.,M.C.:hunter:explorer:naturalist:cricketer:author:soldier;amemoir(1924 ed.).T.F.Unwinltd.261pages Plaster,Maj.JohnL.(1993).TheUltimateSniper:anadvancedtrainingmanualformilitary&policesnipers(1993 ed.).PaladinPress.ISBN 978-0-87364-704-5.-Totalpages:453 Plaster,Maj.JohnL.(2006).Theultimatesniper:anadvancedtrainingmanualformilitary&policesnipers(2006 ed.).PaladinPress.ISBN 978-1-58160-494-8.-Totalpages:584 Plaster,Maj.JohnL.(2007).TheHistoryofSnipingandSharpshooting(2007 ed.).PaladinPress.ISBN 978-1-58160-632-4.-Totalpages:704 Prichard,Hesketh;Vernon,Hesketh(2004).SnipinginFrance1914-18:WithNotesontheScientificTrainingofScouts,Observers,andSnipers(2004 ed.).Helion&CompanyLimited.ISBN 978-1-874622-47-5.-Totalpages:143 Sakaida,Henry;Hook,Christa(2003).HeroinesoftheSovietUnion1941-45(2003 ed.).OspreyPublishing.ISBN 978-1-84176-598-3.-Totalpages:64 Senich,PeterR.(1982).TheGermansniper,1914-1945(1982 ed.).PaladinPress.ISBN 978-0-87364-223-1.-Totalpages:445 Senich,PeterR.(1988).TheCompleteBookofU.S.Sniping(1988 ed.).PaladinPress.ISBN 978-0-87364-460-0.-Totalpages:280 Shore,C.(1988).WithBritishSniperstotheReich(1988 ed.).DesertPubns.ISBN 978-0-87947-122-4.-Totalpages:351 Strong,Charles(2011).KillShot:TheDeadliestSnipersofAllTime(2011 ed.).UlyssesPress.ISBN 978-1-56975-862-5.-Totalpages:192 Smith,Michael(2May2010)."Hotshotsniperinone-and-a-half-miledoublekill".TheSundayTimes.London.Retrieved3May2010. Taylor,Peter(1997).Behindthemask:theIRAandSinnFéin(1997 ed.).TVBooks.ISBN 978-1-57500-061-9.-Totalpages:431 Walter,John.(2017)Snipersatwar:Andequipmentandoperations,history(USNavalInstitutePress,2017) Externallinks[edit] WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedtoSniper. LookupsniperinWiktionary,thefreedictionary. FemaleSovietsnipersofWorldWarII SnipersofWWII SnipinginFrance,byMajorH.Hesketh-Prichard WorldWarIIGermansnipertrainingfilmonYouTube AuthoritycontrolNationallibraries Germany Israel UnitedStates Other NationalArchives(US) Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sniper&oldid=1077224363" Categories:SnipersMilitarysnipersCombatoccupationsMarksmanshipSniperwarfareHiddencategories:CS1German-languagesources(de)Pagescontaininglinkstosubscription-onlycontentHarvandSfnno-targeterrorsCS1:Julian–GregorianuncertaintyCS1maint:archivedcopyastitleWebarchivetemplatewaybacklinksCS1maint:multiplenames:authorslistArticleswithRussian-languagesources(ru)CS1usesRussian-languagescript(ru)CS1Russian-languagesources(ru)AllarticleswithdeadexternallinksArticleswithdeadexternallinksfromJune2020ArticleswithshortdescriptionShortdescriptionmatchesWikidataUsedmydatesfromSeptember2021WikipediaarticlesneedingpagenumbercitationsfromFebruary2018ArticlesneedingadditionalreferencesfromSeptember2019AllarticlesneedingadditionalreferencesAllpagesneedingfactualverificationWikipediaarticlesneedingfactualverificationfromJanuary2011AllarticleswithunsourcedstatementsArticleswithunsourcedstatementsfromJuly2020ArticleswithunsourcedstatementsfromJuly2018WikipediaarticlesneedingfactualverificationfromJune2016WikipediaarticlesneedingfactualverificationfromOctober2008ArticleswithunsourcedstatementsfromOctober2020CommonslinkisonWikidataArticleswithGNDidentifiersArticleswithJ9UidentifiersArticleswithLCCNidentifiersArticleswithNARAidentifiersArticlescontainingvideoclips Navigationmenu Personaltools NotloggedinTalkContributionsCreateaccountLogin Namespaces ArticleTalk English Views ReadEditViewhistory More Search Navigation MainpageContentsCurrenteventsRandomarticleAboutWikipediaContactusDonate Contribute HelpLearntoeditCommunityportalRecentchangesUploadfile Tools WhatlinkshereRelatedchangesUploadfileSpecialpagesPermanentlinkPageinformationCitethispageWikidataitem Print/export DownloadasPDFPrintableversion Inotherprojects WikimediaCommons Languages العربيةAsturianuAzərbaycancaবাংলাБеларускаяБеларуская(тарашкевіца)БългарскиCatalàČeštinaDanskDeutschEestiΕλληνικάEspañolEsperantoEuskaraفارسیFrançaisFryskGalego한국어ՀայերենHrvatskiBahasaIndonesiaItalianoעבריתJawaಕನ್ನಡქართულიҚазақшаKurdîКыргызчаLatviešuLietuviųLombardMagyarമലയാളംМонголNederlands日本語НохчийнNorskbokmålNorsknynorskOccitanOʻzbekcha/ўзбекчаਪੰਜਾਬੀPolskiPortuguêsRomânăРусскийSimpleEnglishSlovenčinaSlovenščinaСрпски/srpskiSrpskohrvatski/српскохрватскиSuomiSvenskaதமிழ்Татарча/tatarçaతెలుగుไทยТоҷикӣTürkçeУкраїнськаTiếngViệt吴语粵語中文 Editlinks