Recycling - Wikipedia

Recyclable materials include many kinds of glass, paper, cardboard, metal, plastic, tires, textiles, batteries, and electronics. The composting and other reuse ... Recycling FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Thisisthelatestacceptedrevision,reviewedon2August2022. Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Convertingwastematerialsintonewproducts Thisarticleisaboutrecyclingofwastematerials.Forrecyclingofwasteenergy,seeEnergyrecycling. "Recycled"redirectshere.Forthealbum,seeRecycled(Nektaralbum). Thethreechasingarrowsoftheuniversalrecyclingsymbol Municipalwasterecyclingrate(%),2015 Recyclingistheprocessofconvertingwastematerialsintonewmaterialsandobjects.Therecoveryofenergyfromwastematerialsisoftenincludedinthisconcept.Therecyclabilityofamaterialdependsonitsabilitytoreacquirethepropertiesithadinitsoriginalstate.[1]Itisanalternativeto"conventional"wastedisposalthatcansavematerialandhelplowergreenhousegasemissions.Itcanalsopreventthewasteofpotentiallyusefulmaterialsandreducetheconsumptionoffreshrawmaterials,reducingenergyuse,airpollution(fromincineration)andwaterpollution(fromlandfilling). Recyclingisakeycomponentofmodernwastereductionandisthethirdcomponentofthe"Reduce,Reuse,andRecycle"wastehierarchy.[2][3]Itpromotesenvironmentalsustainabilitybyremovingrawmaterialinputandredirectingwasteoutputintheeconomicsystem.[4]TherearesomeISOstandardsrelatedtorecycling,suchasISO15270:2008forplasticswasteandISO14001:2015forenvironmentalmanagementcontrolofrecyclingpractice. Recyclablematerialsincludemanykindsofglass,paper,cardboard,metal,plastic,tires,textiles,batteries,andelectronics.Thecompostingandotherreuseofbiodegradablewaste—suchasfoodandgardenwaste—isalsoaformofrecycling.[5]Materialsforrecyclingareeitherdeliveredtoahouseholdrecyclingcenterorpickedupfromcurbsidebins,thensorted,cleaned,andreprocessedintonewmaterialsformanufacturingnewproducts. Inidealimplementations,recyclingamaterialproducesafreshsupplyofthesamematerial—forexample,usedofficepaperwouldbeconvertedintonewofficepaper,andusedpolystyrenefoamintonewpolystyrene.Sometypesofmaterials,suchasmetalcans,canberemanufacturedrepeatedlywithoutlosingtheirpurity.[6]Withothermaterials,thisisoftendifficultortooexpensive(comparedwithproducingthesameproductfromrawmaterialsorothersources),so"recycling"ofmanyproductsandmaterialsinvolvestheirreuseinproducingdifferentmaterials(forexample,paperboard).Anotherformofrecyclingisthesalvageofconstituentmaterialsfromcomplexproducts,duetoeithertheirintrinsicvalue(suchasleadfromcarbatteriesandgoldfromprintedcircuitboards),ortheirhazardousnature(e.g.removalandreuseofmercuryfromthermometersandthermostats). Contents 1History 1.1Origins 1.2Wartime 1.3Post-WorldWarII 2Legislation 2.1Supply 2.2Government-mandateddemand 3Recyclates 3.1Qualityofrecyclate 3.2RecyclateQualityActionPlan(Scotland) 4Recyclingconsumerwaste 4.1Collection 4.1.1Curbsidecollection 4.1.1.1Sourceseparation 4.1.2Buy-backcenters 4.1.3Drop-offcenters 4.1.4Distributedrecycling 4.2Sorting 5Recyclingindustrialwaste 5.1Plasticrecycling 5.1.1Physicalrecycling 5.1.2Chemicalrecycling 5.1.3Wasteplasticpyrolysistofueloil 6Recyclingloops 7Recyclingcodes 8Cost–benefitanalysis 8.1Tradeinrecyclates 9Criticismsandresponses 9.1Energyandmaterialflows 9.2Costs 9.3Workingconditions 9.4Environmentalimpact 9.5Possibleincomelossandsocialcosts 10Publicparticipationrates 11Recyclinginart 12Seealso 13References 14Furtherreading 15Externallinks 15.1Relatedjournals History[edit] Origins[edit] RecyclinghasbeenacommonpracticeformostofhumanhistorywithrecordedadvocatesasfarbackasPlatointhefourthcenturyBC.[citationneeded]Duringperiodswhenresourceswerescarce,archaeologicalstudiesofancientwastedumpsshowlesshouseholdwaste(suchasash,brokentools,andpottery),implyingthatmorewastewasrecycledinplaceofnewmaterial.[7]However,archaeologicalartefactsmadefromrecyclablematerial,suchasglassormetal,mayneitherbetheoriginalobjectnorresembleit,withtheconsequencethatasuccessfulancientrecyclingeconomycanbecomeinvisiblewhenrecyclingissynonymouswithre-meltingratherthanreuse.[8] Inpre-industrialtimes,thereisevidenceofscrapbronzeandothermetalsbeingcollectedinEuropeandmelteddownforcontinuousreuse.[9]Paperrecyclingwasfirstrecordedin1031whenJapaneseshopssoldrepulpedpaper.[10][11]InBritaindustandashfromwoodandcoalfireswascollectedby"dustmen"anddowncycledasabasematerialforbrickmaking.Theseformsofrecyclingweredrivenbytheeconomicadvantageofobtainingrecycledmaterialsinsteadofvirginmaterial,andtheneedforwasteremovalinever-more-denselypopulatedareas.[7]In1813,BenjaminLawdevelopedtheprocessofturningragsinto"shoddy"and"mungo"woolinBatley,Yorkshire,whichcombinedrecycledfiberswithvirginwool.[12]TheWestYorkshireshoddyindustryintownssuchasBatleyandDewsburylastedfromtheearly19thcenturytoatleast1914. Industrializationspurreddemandforaffordablematerials.Inadditiontorags,ferrousscrapmetalswerecovetedastheywerecheapertoacquirethanvirginore.Railroadspurchasedandsoldscrapmetalinthe19thcentury,andthegrowingsteelandautomobileindustriespurchasedscrapintheearly20thcentury.Manysecondarygoodswerecollected,processedandsoldbypeddlerswhoscoureddumpsandcitystreetsfordiscardedmachinery,pots,pans,andothersourcesofmetal.ByWorldWarI,thousandsofsuchpeddlersroamedthestreetsofAmericancities,takingadvantageofmarketforcestorecyclepost-consumermaterialsintoindustrialproduction.[13] Manufacturersofbeveragebottles,includingSchweppes,[14]beganofferingrefundablerecyclingdepositsinGreatBritainandIrelandaround1800.AnofficialrecyclingsystemwithrefundabledepositsforbottleswasestablishedinSwedenin1884,andforaluminumbeveragecansin1982;itledtorecyclingratesof84–99%,dependingontype.(Glassbottlescanberefilledaround20times.[15]) Wartime[edit] AmericanposterfromWorldWarII BritishposterfromWorldWarII RemnantsofironfencebarsinYorkWhip-Ma-Whop-Ma-Gate.SuchpublicpropertyfencesweresawedfortheironandrecycledduringWorldWarII. Newchemicalindustriescreatedinthelate19thcenturybothinventednewmaterials(e.g.Bakelitein1907)andpromisedtotransformvaluelessintovaluablematerials.Proverbially,youcouldnotmakeasilkpurseofasow'sear—untiltheUSfirmArthurD.Littlepublishedin1921"OntheMakingofSilkPursesfromSows'Ears",itsresearchprovingthatwhen"chemistryputsonoverallsandgetsdowntobusiness[...]newvaluesappear.Newandbetterpathsareopenedtoreachthegoalsdesired."[16] Recycling—or"salvage",asitwasthenusuallyknown—wasamajorissueforgovernmentsduringWorldWarII,wherefinancialconstraintsandsignificantmaterialshortagesmadeitnecessarytoreusegoodsandrecyclematerials.[17]Theseresourceshortagescausedbytheworldwars,andothersuchworld-changingevents,greatlyencouragedrecycling.[18][17]Itbecamenecessaryformosthomestorecycletheirwaste,allowingpeopletomakethemostofwhatwasavailable.Recyclinghouseholdmaterialsalsomeantmoreresourceswereleftavailableforwarefforts.[17]Massivegovernmentcampaigns,suchastheNationalSalvageCampaigninBritainandtheSalvageforVictorycampaignintheUnitedStates,occurredineveryfightingnation,urgingcitizenstodonatemetal,paper,rags,andrubberasapatrioticduty. Post-WorldWarII[edit] Aconsiderableinvestmentinrecyclingoccurredinthe1970sduetorisingenergycosts.[19]Recyclingaluminiumusesonly5%oftheenergyofvirginproduction.Glass,paperandothermetalshavelessdramaticbutsignificantenergysavingswhenrecycled.[20] Althoughconsumerelectronicshavebeenpopularsincethe1920s,recyclingthemwasalmostunheardofuntilearly1991.[21]ThefirstelectronicwasterecyclingschemewasimplementedinSwitzerland,beginningwithcollectionofoldrefrigerators,thenexpandingtocoveralldevices.[22]Whentheseprogramswerecreated,manycountriescouldn'tdealwiththesheerquantityofe-waste,oritshazardousnature,andbegantoexporttheproblemtodevelopingcountrieswithoutenforcedenvironmentallegislation.(Forexample,recyclingcomputermonitorsintheUnitedStatescosts10timesmorethaninChina.)DemandforelectronicwasteinAsiabegantogrowwhenscrapyardsfoundtheycouldextractvaluablesubstancessuchascopper,silver,iron,silicon,nickel,andgoldduringtherecyclingprocess.[23]The2000ssawaboominboththesalesofelectronicdevicesandtheirgrowthasawastestream:In2002,e-wastegrewfasterthananyothertypeofwasteintheEU.[24]Thisspurredinvestmentinmodernautomatedfacilitiestocopewiththeinflux,especiallyafterstrictlawswereimplementedin2003.[25][26][27][28] Asof2014,theEuropeanUnionhadabout50%ofworldshareofwasteandrecyclingindustries,withover60,000companiesemploying500,000peopleandaturnoverof€24billion.[29]EUcountriesaremandatedtoreachrecyclingratesofatleast50%;leadingcountriesarealreadyataround65%.TheoverallEUaveragewas39%in2013[30] andisrisingsteadily,to45%in2015.[31][32] In2015,theUnitedNationsGeneralAssemblyset17SustainableDevelopmentGoals.Goal12,ResponsibleConsumptionandProduction,specifies11targets"toensuresustainableconsumptionandproductionpatterns".[33]Thefifthtarget,Target12.5,isdefinedassubstantiallyreducingwastegenerationby2030,indicatedbytheNationalRecyclingRate. In2018,changesintherecyclingindustryhavesparkedaglobal"crisis".On31December2017,Chinaannouncedits"NationalSword"policy,settingnewstandardsforimportsofrecyclablematerialandbanningmaterialsdeemedtoo"dirty"or"hazardous".Thenewpolicycauseddrasticdisruptionsintheglobalrecyclingmarket,andreducedthepricesofscrapplasticandlow-gradepaper.ExportsofrecyclablematerialsfromG7countriestoChinadroppeddramatically,withmanyshiftingtocountriesinsoutheastAsia.Thisgeneratedsignificantconcernabouttherecyclingindustry'spracticesandenvironmentalsustainability.Theabruptshiftcausedcountriestoacceptmorematerialsthantheycouldprocess,andraisedfundamentalquestionsaboutshippingwastefromdevelopedcountriestocountrieswithfewenvironmentalregulations—apracticethatpredatedthecrisis.[34] Legislation[edit] Supply[edit] Forarecyclingprogramtowork,alarge,stablesupplyofrecyclablematerialiscrucial.Threelegislativeoptionshavebeenusedtocreatesuchsupplies:mandatoryrecyclingcollection,containerdepositlegislation,andrefusebans.Mandatorycollectionlawssetrecyclingtargetsforcities,usuallyintheformthatacertainpercentageofamaterialmustbedivertedfromthecity'swastestreambyatargetdate.Thecityisresponsibleforworkingtomeetthistarget.[5] Containerdepositlegislationmandatesrefundsforthereturnofcertaincontainers—typicallyglass,plasticandmetal.Whenaproductinsuchacontainerispurchased,asmallsurchargeisaddedthattheconsumercanreclaimwhenthecontainerisreturnedtoacollectionpoint.Theseprogramshavesucceededincreatinganaverage80%recyclingrate.[35]Despitesuchgoodresults,theshiftincollectioncostsfromlocalgovernmenttoindustryandconsumershascreatedstrongoppositioninsomeareas[5]—forexample,wheremanufacturersbeartheresponsibilityforrecyclingtheirproducts.IntheEuropeanUnion,theWEEEDirectiverequiresproducersofconsumerelectronicstoreimbursetherecyclers'costs.[36] Analternativewaytoincreasethesupplyofrecyclatesistobanthedisposalofcertainmaterialsaswaste,oftenincludingusedoil,oldbatteries,tires,andgardenwaste.Thiscancreateaviableeconomyfortheproperdisposaloftheproducts.Caremustbetakenthatenoughrecyclingservicesexisttomeetthesupply,orsuchbanscancreateincreasedillegaldumping.[5] Government-mandateddemand[edit] Fourformsoflegislationhavealsobeenusedtoincreaseandmaintainthedemandforrecycledmaterials:minimumrecycledcontentmandates,utilizationrates,procurementpolicies,andrecycledproductlabeling.[5] Bothminimumrecycledcontentmandatesandutilizationratesincreasedemandbyforcingmanufacturerstoincluderecyclingintheiroperations.Contentmandatesspecifythatacertainpercentageofanewproductmustconsistofrecycledmaterial.Utilizationratesareamoreflexibleoption:Industriescanmeettheirrecyclingtargetsatanypointoftheiroperations,orevencontractoutrecyclinginexchangefortradablecredits.Opponentstothesemethodscitetheirlargeincreaseinreportingrequirements,andclaimthattheyrobtheindustryofflexibility.[5][37] Governmentshaveusedtheirownpurchasingpowertoincreaserecyclingdemandthrough"procurementpolicies".Thesepoliciesareeither"set-asides",whichreserveacertainamountofspendingforrecycledproducts;or"pricepreference"programsthatprovidelargerbudgetswhenrecycleditemsarepurchased.Additionalregulationscantargetspecificcases:intheUnitedStates,forexample,theEnvironmentalProtectionAgencymandatesthepurchaseofoil,paper,tiresandbuildinginsulationfromrecycledorre-refinedsourceswheneverpossible.[5] Thefinalgovernmentregulationtowardincreaseddemandisrecycledproductlabeling.Whenproducersarerequiredtolabeltheirpackagingwiththeamountofrecycledmaterialitcontains(includingthepackaging),consumerscanmakemoreeducatedchoices.Consumerswithsufficientbuyingpowercanchoosemoreenvironmentallyconsciousoptions,promptingproducerstoincreasetherecycledmaterialintheirproductsandincreasedemand.Standardizedrecyclinglabelingcanalsohaveapositiveeffectonthesupplyofrecyclateswhenitspecifieshowandwheretheproductcanberecycled.[5] Recyclates[edit] Glassrecoveredbycrushingonlyonekindofbeerbottle "Recyclate"isarawmaterialsenttoandprocessedinawasterecyclingplantormaterials-recoveryfacility[38]soitcanbeusedintheproductionofnewmaterialsandproducts.Forexample,plasticbottlescanbemadeintoplasticpelletsandsyntheticfabrics.[39] Qualityofrecyclate[edit] Thequalityofrecyclatesisoneoftheprincipalchallengesforthesuccessofalong-termvisionofagreeneconomyandachievingzerowaste.Itgenerallyreferstohowmuchofitiscomposedoftargetmaterial,versusnon-targetmaterialandothernon-recyclablematerial.[40]Steelandothermetalshaveintrinsicallyhigherrecyclatequality;itisestimatedthattwo-thirdsofallnewsteelcomesfromrecycledsteel.[41]Onlytargetmaterialislikelytoberecycled,sohigheramountsofnon-targetandnon-recyclablematerialscanreducethequantityofrecycledproducts.[40]Ahighproportionofnon-targetandnon-recyclablematerialcanmakeitmoredifficulttoachieve"high-quality"recycling;andifrecyclateisofpoorquality,itismorelikelytoendupbeingdown-cycledor,inmoreextremecases,senttootherrecoveryoptionsorlandfilled.[40]Forexample,tofacilitatetheremanufacturingofclearglassproducts,therearetightrestrictionsforcoloredglassenteringthere-meltprocess.Anotherexampleisthedowncyclingofplastic,whereproductssuchasplasticfoodpackagingareoftendowncycledintolowerqualityproducts,anddonotgetrecycledintothesameplasticfoodpackaging. Thequalityofrecyclatenotonlysupportshigh-qualityrecycling,butitcanalsodeliversignificantenvironmentalbenefitsbyreducing,reusing,andkeepingproductsoutoflandfills.[40]High-qualityrecyclingcansupporteconomicgrowthbymaximizingthevalueofwastematerial.[40]Higherincomelevelsfromthesaleofqualityrecyclatescanreturnvaluesignificanttolocalgovernments,householdsandbusinesses.[40]Pursuinghigh-qualityrecyclingcanalsopromoteconsumerandbusinessconfidenceinthewasteandresourcemanagementsector,andmayencourageinvestmentinit. Therearemanyactionsalongtherecyclingsupplychain,eachofwhichcanaffectrecyclatequality.[42]Wasteproducerswhoplacenon-targetandnon-recyclablewastesinrecyclingcollectionscanaffectthequalityoffinalrecyclatestreams,andrequireextraeffortstodiscardthosematerialsatlaterstagesintherecyclingprocess.[42]Differentcollectionsystemscaninducedifferentlevelsofcontamination.Whenmultiplematerialsarecollectedtogether,extraeffortisrequiredtosortthemintoseparatestreamsandcansignificantlyreducethequalityofthefinalproducts.[42]Transportationandthecompactionofmaterialscanalsomakethismoredifficult.Despiteimprovementsintechnologyandqualityofrecyclate,sortingfacilitiesarestillnot100%effectiveinseparatingmaterials.[42]Whenmaterialsarestoredoutside,wheretheycanbecomewet,canalsocauseproblemsforre-processors.Furthersortingstepsmayberequiredtosatisfactorilyreducetheamountofnon-targetandnon-recyclablematerial.[42] RecyclateQualityActionPlan(Scotland)[edit] Scotland'sRecyclateQualityActionPlanproposesanumberofactionstheScottishGovernmentwantstotaketoincreasethequalityofmaterialscollectedforrecyclingandsortedatrecoveryfacilitiesbeforeitisexportedorsoldonthereprocessingmarket.[42]Itsobjectivesareto:[43] Increaserecyclatequality,andcreategreatertransparencyaboutit. Helpthosecontractingwithrecyclingfacilitiesidentifywhatisrequiredofthem. EnsurecompliancewiththeWaste(Scotland)Regulations2012. Stimulateahouseholdmarketforqualityrecyclate. Addressandreduceissuesaroundwasteshipmentregulations. Theplanfocusesonthreekeyareas,with14actionstoincreasethequalityofmaterialscollected,sortedandpresentedtotheprocessingmarketinScotland.[43]Theseareasare:[42] Collectionsystemsandinputcontamination Sortingfacilities—materialsamplingandtransparency Materialqualitybenchmarkingandstandards Recyclingconsumerwaste[edit] Collection[edit] Athree-sidedbinatarailwaystationinGermany,intendedtoseparatepaper(left)andplasticwrappings(right)fromotherwaste(back) Anumberofsystemshavebeenimplementedtocollectrecyclatesfromthegeneralwastestream,occupyingdifferentplacesonthespectrumoftrade-offbetweenpublicconvenienceandgovernmenteaseandexpense.Thethreemaincategoriesofcollectionaredrop-offcenters,buy-backcentersandcurbsidecollection.[5]Abouttwo-thirdsofthecostofrecyclingisincurredinthecollectionphase.[44] Curbsidecollection[edit] Mainarticle:Curbsidecollection ArecyclingtruckcollectingthecontentsofarecyclingbininCanberra,Australia EmptyingofsegregatedrubbishcontainersinTomaszówMazowiecki,Poland Curbsidecollectionencompassesmanysubtlydifferentsystems,whichdiffermostlyonwhereintheprocesstherecyclatesaresortedandcleaned.Themaincategoriesaremixedwastecollection,commingledrecyclables,andsourceseparation.[5]Awastecollectionvehiclegenerallypicksupthewaste. Inmixedwastecollection,recyclatesarecollectedmixedwiththerestofthewaste,andthedesiredmaterialsaresortedoutandcleanedatacentralsortingfacility.Thisresultsinalargeamountofrecyclablewaste(especiallypaper)beingtoosoiledtoreprocess,buthasadvantagesaswell:Thecityneednotpayfortheseparatecollectionofrecyclates,nopubliceducationisneeded,andanychangestotherecyclabilityofcertainmaterialsareimplementedwheresortingoccurs.[5] Inacommingledorsingle-streamsystem,recyclablesaremixedbutkeptseparatefromnon-recyclablewaste.Thisgreatlyreducestheneedforpost-collectioncleaning,butrequirespubliceducationonwhatmaterialsarerecyclable.[5][9] Sourceseparation[edit] Sourceseparationistheotherextreme,whereeachmaterialiscleanedandsortedpriortocollection.Itrequirestheleastpost-collectionsortingandproducesthepurestrecyclates.However,itincursadditionaloperatingcostsforcollectingeachmaterial,andrequiresextensivepubliceducationtoavoidrecyclatecontamination.[5]InOregon,USA,OregonDEQsurveyedmulti-familypropertymanagers;abouthalfofthemreportedproblems,includingcontaminationofrecyclablesduetotrespasserssuchastransientsgainingaccesstocollectionareas.[45] Sourceseparationusedtobethepreferredmethodduetothehighcostofsortingcommingled(mixedwaste)collection.However,advancesinsortingtechnologyhavesubstantiallyloweredthisoverhead,andmanyareasthathaddevelopedsourceseparationprogramshaveswitchedtowhatiscalledco-mingledcollection.[9] Buy-backcenters[edit] ReversevendingmachineinTomaszówMazowiecki,Poland AtBuy-backcenters,separated,cleanedrecyclatesarepurchased,providingaclearincentiveforuseandcreatingastablesupply.Thepost-processedmaterialcanthenbesold.Ifprofitable,thisconservestheemissionofgreenhousegases;ifunprofitable,itincreasestheiremission.Buy-backcentresgenerallyneedgovernmentsubsidiestobeviable.Accordingtoa1993reportbytheU.S.NationalWaste&RecyclingAssociation,itcostsanaverage$50toprocessatonofmaterialthatcanberesoldfor$30.[5] IntheUS,thevaluepertonofmixedrecyclableswas$180in2011,$80in2015,and$100in2017.[46] In2017,glasswasessentiallyvaluelessbecauseofthelowcostofsand,itsmajorcomponent.Similarly,lowoilcoststhwartedplasticrecycling.[46] In2017,Napa,Californiawasreimbursedabout20%ofitsrecyclingcosts.[46] Drop-offcenters[edit] Drop-offcentersrequirethewasteproducertocarryrecyclatestoacentrallocation—eitheraninstalledormobilecollectionstationorthereprocessingplantitself.Theyaretheeasiesttypeofcollectiontoestablishbutsufferfromlowandunpredictablethroughput. Distributedrecycling[edit] Forsomewastematerialssuchasplastic,recenttechnicaldevicescalledrecyclebots[47]enableaformofdistributedrecycling.Preliminarylife-cycleanalysis(LCA)indicatesthatsuchdistributedrecyclingofHDPEtomakefilamentfor3Dprintersinruralregionsconsumeslessenergythanusingvirginresin,orusingconventionalrecyclingprocesseswiththeirassociatedtransportation.[48][49] Sorting[edit] Videoofrecyclingsortingfacilityandprocesses Oncecommingledrecyclatesarecollectedanddeliveredtoamaterialsrecoveryfacility,thematerialsmustbesorted.Thisisdoneinaseriesofstages,manyofwhichinvolveautomatedprocesses,enablingatruckloadofmaterialtobefullysortedinlessthananhour.[9]Someplantscannowsortmaterialsautomatically;thisisknownassingle-streamrecycling.Automaticsortingmaybeaidedbyroboticsandmachinelearning.[50][51]Inplants,avarietyofmaterialsissortedincludingpaper,differenttypesofplastics,glass,metals,foodscraps,andmosttypesofbatteries.[52]A30%increaseinrecyclingrateshasbeenseeninareaswiththeseplants.[53]IntheUS,thereareover300materialsrecoveryfacilities.[54] Initially,commingledrecyclatesareremovedfromthecollectionvehicleandplacedonaconveyorbeltspreadoutinasinglelayer.Largepiecesofcorrugatedfiberboardandplasticbagsareremovedbyhandatthisstage,astheycancauselatermachinerytojam.[9] Earlysortingofrecyclablematerials:glassandplasticbottlesinPoland. Next,automatedmachinerysuchasdiskscreensandairclassifiersseparatetherecyclatesbyweight,splittinglighterpaperandplasticfromheavierglassandmetal.Cardboardisremovedfrommixedpaper,andthemostcommontypesofplastic—PET(#1)andHDPE(#2)—arecollected,sothesematerialscanbedivertedintothepropercollectionchannels.Thisisusuallydonebyhand;butinsomesortingcenters,spectroscopicscannersareusedtodifferentiatebetweentypesofpaperandplasticbasedontheirabsorbedwavelengths.[9]Plasticstendtobeincompatiblewitheachotherduetodifferencesinchemicalcomposition;theirpolymermoleculesrepeleachother,similartooilandwater.[55] Strongmagnetsareusedtoseparateoutferrousmetalssuchasiron,steelandtincans.Non-ferrousmetalsareejectedbymagneticeddycurrents:Arotatingmagneticfieldinducesanelectriccurrentaroundaluminumcans,creatinganeddycurrentinsidethecansthatisrepulsedbyalargemagneticfield,ejectingthecansfromthestream.[9] ArecyclingpointinNewByth,Scotland,withseparatecontainersforpaper,plastics,anddifferentlycoloredglass. Finally,glassissortedaccordingtoitscolor:brown,amber,green,orclear.Itmaybesortedeitherbyhand,[9]orbyamachinethatusescoloredfilterstodetectcolors.Glassfragmentssmallerthan10millimetres(0.39 in)cannotbesortedautomatically,andaremixedtogetheras"glassfines".[56] In2003,SanFrancisco'sDepartmentoftheEnvironmentsetacitywidegoalofzerowasteby2020.[57]SanFrancisco'srefusehauler,Recology,operatesaneffectiverecyclablessortingfacilitythathashelpedthecityreacharecord-breakinglandfilldiversionrateof80%asof2021.[58]OtherAmericancities,includingLosAngeles,haveachievedsimilarrates. Recyclingindustrialwaste[edit] Moundsofshreddedrubbertiresreadyforprocessing Althoughmanygovernmentprogramsconcentrateonrecyclingathome,64%ofwasteintheUnitedKingdomisgeneratedbyindustry.[59]Thefocusofmanyrecyclingprogramsinindustryistheircost-effectiveness.Theubiquitousnatureofcardboardpackagingmakescardboardacommonlywasteproductrecycledbycompaniesthatdealheavilyinpackagedgoods,suchasretailstores,warehouses,andgoodsdistributors.Otherindustriesdealinnicheandspecializedproducts,dependingonthewastematerialstheyhandle. Glass,lumber,woodpulpandpapermanufacturersalldealdirectlyincommonlyrecycledmaterials;however,independenttiredealersmaycollectandrecyclerubbertiresforaprofit. ThewasteproducedfromburningcoalinaCoal-firedpowerstationisoftencalledflyashintheUnitedStatesorfuelashelsewhere.Itisaveryusefulmaterialandusedinconcreteconstruction.ItexhibitsPozzolanicactivity.[60] Levelsofmetalsrecyclingaregenerallylow.In2010,theInternationalResourcePanel,hostedbytheUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme(UNEP),publishedreportsonmetalstocks[61]andtheirrecyclingrates.[61]Itreportedthattheincreaseintheuseofmetalsduringthe20thandintothe21stcenturyhasledtoasubstantialshiftinmetalstocksfrombelow-groundtouseinabove-groundapplicationswithinsociety.Forexample,intheUS,in-usecoppergrewfrom73to238 kgpercapitabetween1932–1999. Thereport'sauthorsobservedthat,asmetalsareinherentlyrecyclable,metalstocksinsocietycanserveashugeabove-groundmines(theterm"urbanmining"hasthusbeencoined[62]).However,theyfoundthattherecyclingratesofmanymetalsarelow.Theywarnedthattherecyclingratesofsomeraremetalsusedinapplicationssuchasmobilephones,batterypacksforhybridcarsandfuelcells,aresolowthatunlessfutureend-of-liferecyclingratesaredramaticallyincreased,thesecriticalmetalswillbecomeunavailableforuseinmoderntechnology. Themilitaryrecyclessomemetals.TheU.S.Navy'sShipDisposalProgramusesshipbreakingtoreclaimthesteelofoldvessels.Shipsmayalsobesunktocreateartificialreefs.Uraniumisadensemetalthathasqualitiessuperiortoleadandtitaniumformanymilitaryandindustrialuses.Uraniumleftoverfromprocessingitintonuclearweaponsandfuelfornuclearreactorsiscalleddepleteduranium,andisusedbyallbranchesoftheU.S.militaryforthedevelopmentofsuchthingsasarmor-piercingshellsandshielding. Theconstructionindustrymayrecycleconcreteandoldroadsurfacepavement,sellingthesematerialsforprofit. Somerapidlygrowingindustries,particularlytherenewableenergyandsolarphotovoltaictechnologyindustries,areproactivelycreatingrecyclingpoliciesevenbeforetheirwastestreamshaveconsiderablevolume,anticipatingfuturedemand.[63] Recyclingofplasticsismoredifficult,asmostprogramsarenotabletoreachthenecessarylevelofquality.RecyclingofPVCoftenresultsindowncyclingofthematerial,whichmeansonlyproductsoflowerqualitystandardcanbemadewiththerecycledmaterial.Furtherinformation:Computerrecycling Furtherinformation:Batteryrecycling Furtherinformation:Solarpanel§ Recycling Furtherinformation:Windturbine§ Demolitionandrecycling Computerprocessorsretrievedfromwastestream E-wasteisagrowingproblem,accountingfor20–50millionmetrictonsofglobalwasteperyearaccordingtotheEPA.ItisalsothefastestgrowingwastestreamintheEU.[24]Manyrecyclersdonotrecyclee-wasteresponsibly.AfterthecargobargeKhianSeadumped14,000metrictonsoftoxicashinHaiti,theBaselConventionwasformedtostemtheflowofhazardoussubstancesintopoorercountries.Theycreatedthee-Stewardscertificationtoensurethatrecyclersareheldtothehigheststandardsforenvironmentalresponsibilityandtohelpconsumersidentifyresponsiblerecyclers.Itoperatesalongsideotherprominentlegislation,suchastheWasteElectricalandElectronicEquipmentDirectiveoftheEUandtheUnitedStatesNationalComputerRecyclingAct,topreventpoisonouschemicalsfromenteringwaterwaysandtheatmosphere. Intherecyclingprocess,televisionsets,monitors,cellphones,andcomputersaretypicallytestedforreuseandrepaired.Ifbroken,theymaybedisassembledforpartsstillhavinghighvalueiflaborischeapenough.Othere-wasteisshreddedtopiecesroughly10centimetres(3.9 in)insizeandmanuallycheckedtoseparatetoxicbatteriesandcapacitors,whichcontainpoisonousmetals.Theremainingpiecesarefurthershreddedto10millimetres(0.39 in)particlesandpassedunderamagnettoremoveferrousmetals.Aneddycurrentejectsnon-ferrousmetals,whicharesortedbydensityeitherbyacentrifugeorvibratingplates.Preciousmetalscanbedissolvedinacid,sorted,andsmeltedintoingots.Theremainingglassandplasticfractionsareseparatedbydensityandsoldtore-processors.TelevisionsetsandmonitorsmustbemanuallydisassembledtoremoveleadfromCRTsandthemercurybacklightfromLCDs.[64][65][66] Vehicles,solarpanelsandwindturbinescanalsoberecycled.Theyoftencontainrare-earthelements(REE)and/orothercriticalrawmaterials.Forelectriccarproduction,largeamountsofREE'saretypicallyrequired.[67] WhereasmanycriticalrawelementsandREE'scanberecovered,environmentalengineerPhillipeBihouixreportsthatrecyclingofindium,gallium,germanium,selenium,andtantalumisstillverydifficultandtheirrecyclingratesareverylow.[68] Plasticrecycling[edit] Mainarticle:Plasticrecycling Acontainerforrecyclingusedplasticspoonsintomaterialfor3Dprinting Plasticrecyclingistheprocessofrecoveringscraporwasteplasticandreprocessingthematerialintousefulproducts,sometimescompletelydifferentinformfromtheiroriginalstate.Forinstance,thiscouldmeanmeltingdownsoftdrinkbottlesandthencastingthemasplasticchairsandtables.[69]Forsometypesofplastic,thesamepieceofplasticcanonlyberecycledabout2–3timesbeforeitsqualitydecreasestothepointwhereitcannolongerbeused.[6] Physicalrecycling[edit] Someplasticsareremeltedtoformnewplasticobjects;forexample,PETwaterbottlescanbeconvertedintopolyesterdestinedforclothing.Adisadvantageofthistypeofrecyclingisthatthemolecularweightofthepolymercanchangefurtherandthelevelsofunwantedsubstancesintheplasticcanincreasewitheachremelt.[citationneeded] Acommercial-builtrecyclingfacilitywassenttotheInternationalSpaceStationinlate2019.Thefacilitytakesinplasticwasteandunneededplasticpartsandphysicallyconvertsthemintospoolsoffeedstockforthespacestationadditivemanufacturingfacilityusedforin-space3Dprinting.[70] Chemicalrecycling[edit] Forsomepolymers,itispossibletoconvertthembackintomonomers,forexample,PETcanbetreatedwithanalcoholandacatalysttoformadialkylterephthalate.Theterephthalatediestercanbeusedwithethyleneglycoltoformanewpolyesterpolymer,thusmakingitpossibletousethepurepolymeragain.In2019,EastmanChemicalCompanyannouncedinitiativesofmethanolysisandsyngasdesignedtohandleagreatervarietyofusedmaterial.[71] Wasteplasticpyrolysistofueloil[edit] Anotherprocessinvolvestheconversionofassortedpolymersintopetroleumbyamuchlessprecisethermaldepolymerizationprocess.Suchaprocesswouldbeabletoacceptalmostanypolymerormixofpolymers,includingthermosetmaterialssuchasvulcanizedrubbertiresandthebiopolymersinfeathersandotheragriculturalwaste.Likenaturalpetroleum,thechemicalsproducedcanbeusedasfuelsorasfeedstock.ARESEMTechnology[72]plantofthistypeinCarthage,Missouri,US,usesturkeywasteasinputmaterial.Gasificationisasimilarprocessbutisnottechnicallyrecyclingsincepolymersarenotlikelytobecometheresult. PlasticPyrolysiscanconvertpetroleumbasedwastestreamssuchasplasticsintoqualityfuels,carbons.Givenbelowisthelistofsuitableplasticrawmaterialsforpyrolysis: Mixedplastic(HDPE,LDPE,PE,PP,Nylon,Teflon,PS,ABS,FRP,PETetc.) Mixedwasteplasticfromwastepapermill Multi-layeredplastic Recyclingloops[edit] Loopsforproduction-waste,productandmaterialrecycling The(ideal)recyclingprocesscanbedifferentiatedintothreeloops,oneformanufacture(production-wasterecycling)andtwofordisposaloftheproduct(productandmaterialrecycling).[2] Theproduct'smanufacturingphase,whichconsistsofmaterialprocessingandfabrication,formstheproduction-wasterecyclingloop.Industrialwastematerialsarefedbackinto,andreusedin,thesameproductionprocess. Theproduct'sdisposalprocessrequirestworecyclingloops:productrecyclingandmaterialrecycling.[2] Theproductorproductpartsarereusedintheproductrecyclingphase.Thishappensinoneoftwoways:theproductisusedretainingtheproductfunctionality("reuse")ortheproductcontinuestobeusedbutwithalteredfunctionality("furtheruse").[2]Theproductdesignisunmodified,oronlyslightlymodified,inbothscenarios. Productdisassemblyrequiresmaterialrecyclingwhereproductmaterialsarerecoveredandrecycled.Ideally,thematerialsareprocessedsotheycanflowbackintotheproductionprocess.[2] Recyclingcodes[edit] Mainarticle:Recyclingcodes Recyclingcodesonproducts Inordertomeetrecyclers'needswhileprovidingmanufacturersaconsistent,uniformsystem,acodingsystemwasdeveloped.Therecyclingcodeforplasticswasintroducedin1988bytheplasticsindustrythroughtheSocietyofthePlasticsIndustry.[73]Becausemunicipalrecyclingprogramstraditionallyhavetargetedpackaging—primarilybottlesandcontainers—theresincodingsystemofferedameansofidentifyingtheresincontentofbottlesandcontainerscommonlyfoundintheresidentialwastestream.[74] Plasticproductsareprintedwithnumbers1–7dependingonthetypeofresin.Type1(polyethyleneterephthalate)iscommonlyfoundinsoftdrinkandwaterbottles.Type2(high-densitypolyethylene)isfoundinmosthardplasticssuchasmilkjugs,laundrydetergentbottles,andsomedishware.Type3(polyvinylchloride)includesitemssuchasshampoobottles,showercurtains,hulahoops,creditcards,wirejacketing,medicalequipment,siding,andpiping.Type4(low-densitypolyethylene)isfoundinshoppingbags,squeezablebottles,totebags,clothing,furniture,andcarpet.Type5ispolypropyleneandmakesupsyrupbottles,straws,Tupperware,andsomeautomotiveparts.Type6ispolystyreneandmakesupmeattrays,eggcartons,clamshellcontainers,andcompactdisccases.Type7includesallotherplasticssuchasbulletproofmaterials,3-and5-gallonwaterbottles,cellphoneandtabletframes,safetygogglesandsunglasses.[75]Havingarecyclingcodeorthechasingarrowslogoonamaterialisnotanautomaticindicatorthatamaterialisrecyclablebutratheranexplanationofwhatthematerialis.Types1and2arethemostcommonlyrecycled. Cost–benefitanalysis[edit] Thisarticlemaybeconfusingoruncleartoreaders.Pleasehelpclarifythearticle.Theremightbeadiscussionaboutthisonthetalkpage.(March2019)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Environmentaleffectsofrecycling[76] Material Energysavingsvs.newproduction Airpollutionsavingsvs.newproduction Aluminium 95%[5][20] 95%[5][77] Cardboard 24%  — Glass 5–30% 20% Paper 40%[20] 73%[78] Plastics 70%[20]  — Steel 60%[9]  — Inadditiontoenvironmentalimpact,thereisdebateoverwhetherrecyclingiseconomicallyefficient.AccordingtoaNaturalResourcesDefenseCouncilstudy,wastecollectionandlandfilldisposalcreateslessthanonejobper1,000tonsofwastematerialmanaged;incontrast,thecollection,processing,andmanufacturingofrecycledmaterialscreates6–13ormorejobsper1,000tons.[79]AccordingtotheU.S.RecyclingEconomicInformationalStudy,thereareover50,000recyclingestablishmentsthathavecreatedoveramillionjobsintheUS.[80]TheNationalWaste&RecyclingAssociation(NWRA)reportedinMay2015thatrecyclingandwastemadea$6.7billioneconomicimpactinOhio,U.S.,andemployed14,000people.[81]Economists[who?]wouldclassifythisextralaborusedasacostratherthanabenefitsincetheseworkerscouldhavebeenemployedelsewhere;thecosteffectivenessofcreatingtheseadditionaljobsremainsunclear.[citationneeded] Sometimescitieshavefoundrecyclingsavesresourcescomparedtoothermethodsofwastedisposal.TwoyearsafterNewYorkCitydeclaredthatimplementingrecyclingprogramswouldbe"adrainonthecity",NewYorkCityleadersrealizedthatanefficientrecyclingsystemcouldsavethecityover$20million.[82]Municipalitiesoftenseefiscalbenefitsfromimplementingrecyclingprograms,largelyduetothereducedlandfillcosts.[83]AstudyconductedbytheTechnicalUniversityofDenmarkaccordingtotheEconomistfoundthatin83percentofcases,recyclingisthemostefficientmethodtodisposeofhouseholdwaste.[9][20]However,a2004assessmentbytheDanishEnvironmentalAssessmentInstituteconcludedthatincinerationwasthemosteffectivemethodfordisposingofdrinkcontainers,evenaluminiumones.[84] Fiscalefficiencyisseparatefromeconomicefficiency.Economicanalysisofrecyclingdoesnotincludewhateconomistscallexternalities:unpricedcostsandbenefitsthataccruetoindividualsoutsideofprivatetransactions.Examplesincludelessairpollutionandgreenhousegasesfromincinerationandlesswasteleachingfromlandfills.Withoutmechanismssuchastaxesorsubsidies,businessesandconsumersfollowingtheirprivatebenefitwouldignoreexternalitiesdespitethecostsimposedonsociety.Iflandfillsandincineratorpollutionisinadequatelyregulated,thesemethodsofwastedisposalappearcheaperthantheyreallyare,becausepartoftheircostisthepollutionimposedonpeoplenearby.Thus,advocateshavepushedforlegislationtoincreasedemandforrecycledmaterials.[5]TheUnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)hasconcludedinfavorofrecycling,sayingthatrecyclingeffortsreducedthecountry'scarbonemissionsbyanet49millionmetrictonnesin2005.[9]IntheUnitedKingdom,theWasteandResourcesActionProgrammestatedthatGreatBritain'srecyclingeffortsreduceCO2emissionsby10–15milliontonnesayear.[9]Thequestionforeconomicefficiencyiswhetherthisreductionisworththeextracostofrecyclingandthusmakestheartificialdemandcreatesbylegislationworthwhile. Wreckedautomobilesgatheredforsmelting Certainrequirementsmustbemetforrecyclingtobeeconomicallyfeasibleandenvironmentallyeffective.Theseincludeanadequatesourceofrecyclates,asystemtoextractthoserecyclatesfromthewastestream,anearbyfactorycapableofreprocessingtherecyclates,andapotentialdemandfortherecycledproducts.Theselasttworequirementsareoftenoverlooked—withoutbothanindustrialmarketforproductionusingthecollectedmaterialsandaconsumermarketforthemanufacturedgoods,recyclingisincompleteandinfactonly"collection".[5] Free-marketeconomistJulianSimonremarked"Therearethreewayssocietycanorganizewastedisposal:(a)commanding,(b)guidingbytaxandsubsidy,and(c)leavingittotheindividualandthemarket".Theseprinciplesappeartodivideeconomicthinkerstoday.[85] FrankAckermanfavoursahighlevelofgovernmentinterventiontoproviderecyclingservices.Hebelievesthatrecycling'sbenefitcannotbeeffectivelyquantifiedbytraditionallaissez-faireeconomics.AllenHershkowitzsupportsintervention,sayingthatitisapublicserviceequaltoeducationandpolicing.Hearguesthatmanufacturersshouldshouldermoreoftheburdenofwastedisposal.[85] PaulCalcottandMargaretWallsadvocatethesecondoption.Adepositrefundschemeandasmallrefusechargewouldencouragerecyclingbutnotattheexpenseofillegaldumping.ThomasC.Kinnamanconcludesthatalandfilltaxwouldforceconsumers,companiesandcouncilstorecyclemore.[85] Mostfree-marketthinkersdetestsubsidyandintervention,arguingthattheywasteresources.Thegeneralargumentisthatifcitieschargethefullcostofgarbagecollection,privatecompaniescanprofitablyrecycleanymaterialsforwhichthebenefitofrecyclingexceedsthecost(e.g.aluminum[86])anddonotrecycleothermaterialsforwhichthebenefitislessthanthecost(e.g.glass[87]).Cities,ontheotherhand,oftenrecycleevenwhentheynotonlydonotreceiveenoughforthepaperorplastictopayforitscollection,butmustactuallypayprivaterecyclingcompaniestotakeitoffoftheirhands.[86]TerryAndersonandDonaldLealthinkthatallrecyclingprogrammesshouldbeprivatelyoperated,andthereforewouldonlyoperateifthemoneysavedbyrecyclingexceedsitscosts.DanielK.Benjaminarguesthatitwastespeople'sresourcesandlowersthewealthofapopulation.[85]Henotesthatrecyclingcancostacitymorethantwiceasmuchaslandfills,thatintheUnitedStateslandfillsaresoheavilyregulatedthattheirpollutioneffectsarenegligible,andthattherecyclingprocessalsogeneratespollutionandusesenergy,whichmayormaynotbelessthanfromvirginproduction.[88] Tradeinrecyclates[edit] Certaincountriestradeinunprocessedrecyclates.Somehavecomplainedthattheultimatefateofrecyclatessoldtoanothercountryisunknownandtheymayendupinlandfillsinsteadofbeingreprocessed.Accordingtoonereport,inAmerica,50–80percentofcomputersdestinedforrecyclingareactuallynotrecycled.[89][90]Therearereportsofillegal-wasteimportstoChinabeingdismantledandrecycledsolelyformonetarygain,withoutconsiderationforworkers'healthorenvironmentaldamage.AlthoughtheChinesegovernmenthasbannedthesepractices,ithasnotbeenabletoeradicatethem.[91]In2008,thepricesofrecyclablewasteplummetedbeforereboundingin2009.Cardboardaveragedabout£53/tonnefrom2004to2008,droppedto£19/tonne,andthenwentupto£59/tonneinMay2009.PETplasticaveragedabout£156/tonne,droppedto£75/tonneandthenmovedupto£195/tonneinMay2009.[92] Certainregionshavedifficultyusingorexportingasmuchofamaterialastheyrecycle.Thisproblemismostprevalentwithglass:bothBritainandtheU.S.importlargequantitiesofwinebottledingreenglass.Thoughmuchofthisglassissenttoberecycled,outsidetheAmericanMidwestthereisnotenoughwineproductiontouseallofthereprocessedmaterial.Theextramustbedowncycledintobuildingmaterialsorre-insertedintotheregularwastestream.[5][9] Similarly,thenorthwesternUnitedStateshasdifficultyfindingmarketsforrecyclednewspaper,giventhelargenumberofpulpmillsintheregionaswellastheproximitytoAsianmarkets.InotherareasoftheU.S.,however,demandforusednewsprinthasseenwidefluctuation.[5] InsomeU.S.states,aprogramcalledRecycleBankpayspeopletorecycle,receivingmoneyfromlocalmunicipalitiesforthereductioninlandfillspacethatmustbepurchased.Itusesasinglestreamprocessinwhichallmaterialisautomaticallysorted.[93] Criticismsandresponses[edit] Thisarticlemaybeconfusingoruncleartoreaders.Pleasehelpclarifythearticle.Theremightbeadiscussionaboutthisonthetalkpage.(March2019)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Critics[who?]disputetheneteconomicandenvironmentalbenefitsofrecyclingoveritscosts,andsuggestthatproponentsofrecyclingoftenmakemattersworseandsufferfromconfirmationbias.Specifically,criticsarguethatthecostsandenergyusedincollectionandtransportationdetractfrom(andoutweigh)thecostsandenergysavedintheproductionprocess;alsothatthejobsproducedbytherecyclingindustrycanbeapoortradeforthejobslostinlogging,mining,andotherindustriesassociatedwithproduction;andthatmaterialssuchaspaperpulpcanonlyberecycledafewtimesbeforematerialdegradationpreventsfurtherrecycling.[94] Muchofthedifficultyinherentinrecyclingcomesfromthefactthatmostproductsarenotdesignedwithrecyclinginmind.Theconceptofsustainabledesignaimstosolvethisproblem,andwaslaidoutinthebookCradletoCradle:RemakingtheWayWeMakeThingsbyarchitectWilliamMcDonoughandchemistMichaelBraungart.[95]Theysuggestthateveryproduct(andallpackagingitrequires)shouldhaveacomplete"closed-loop"cyclemappedoutforeachcomponent—awayinwhicheverycomponenteitherreturnstothenaturalecosystemthroughbiodegradationorisrecycledindefinitely.[9][96] Completerecyclingisimpossiblefromapracticalstandpoint.Insummary,substitutionandrecyclingstrategiesonlydelaythedepletionofnon-renewablestocksandthereforemaybuytimeinthetransitiontotrueorstrongsustainability,whichultimatelyisonlyguaranteedinaneconomybasedonrenewableresources.[97]: 21 — M. H.Huesemann,2003 Whilerecyclingdivertswastefromenteringdirectlyintolandfillsites,currentrecyclingmissesthedispersivecomponents.Thesecriticsbelievethatcompleterecyclingisimpracticableashighlydispersedwastesbecomesodilutedthattheenergyneededfortheirrecoverybecomesincreasinglyexcessive. Aswithenvironmentaleconomics,caremustbetakentoensureacompleteviewofthecostsandbenefitsinvolved.Forexample,paperboardpackagingforfoodproductsismoreeasilyrecycledthanmostplastic,butisheaviertoshipandmayresultinmorewastefromspoilage.[98] Energyandmaterialflows[edit] Balesofcrushedsteelreadyfortransporttothesmelter Theamountofenergysavedthroughrecyclingdependsuponthematerialbeingrecycledandthetypeofenergyaccountingthatisused.Correctaccountingforthissavedenergycanbeaccomplishedwithlife-cycleanalysisusingrealenergyvalues,andinaddition,exergy,whichisameasureofhowmuchusefulenergycanbeused.Ingeneral,ittakesfarlessenergytoproduceaunitmassofrecycledmaterialsthanitdoestomakethesamemassofvirginmaterials.[99][100][101] Somescholarsuseemergy(spelledwithanm)analysis,forexample,budgetsfortheamountofenergyofonekind(exergy)thatisrequiredtomakeortransformthingsintoanotherkindofproductorservice.Emergycalculationstakeintoaccounteconomicsthatcanalterpurephysics-basedresults.Usingemergylife-cycleanalysisresearchershaveconcludedthatmaterialswithlargerefiningcostshavethegreatestpotentialforhighrecyclebenefits.Moreover,thehighestemergyefficiencyaccruesfromsystemsgearedtowardmaterialrecycling,wherematerialsareengineeredtorecyclebackintotheiroriginalformandpurpose,followedbyadaptivereusesystemswherethematerialsarerecycledintoadifferentkindofproduct,andthenby-productreusesystemswherepartsoftheproductsareusedtomakeanentirelydifferentproduct.[102] TheEnergyInformationAdministration(EIA)statesonitswebsitethat"apapermilluses40percentlessenergytomakepaperfromrecycledpaperthanitdoestomakepaperfromfreshlumber."[103]Somecriticsarguethatittakesmoreenergytoproducerecycledproductsthanitdoestodisposeofthemintraditionallandfillmethods,sincethecurbsidecollectionofrecyclablesoftenrequiresasecondwastetruck.However,recyclingproponentspointoutthatasecondtimberorloggingtruckiseliminatedwhenpaperiscollectedforrecycling,sothenetenergyconsumptionisthesame.Anemergylife-cycleanalysisonrecyclingrevealedthatflyash,aluminum,recycledconcreteaggregate,recycledplastic,andsteelyieldhigherefficiencyratios,whereastherecyclingoflumbergeneratesthelowestrecyclebenefitratio.Hence,thespecificnatureoftherecyclingprocess,themethodsusedtoanalysetheprocess,andtheproductsinvolvedaffecttheenergysavingsbudgets.[102] Itisdifficulttodeterminetheamountofenergyconsumedorproducedinwastedisposalprocessesinbroaderecologicalterms,wherecausalrelationsdissipateintocomplexnetworksofmaterialandenergyflow.Forexample,"citiesdonotfollowallthestrategiesofecosystemdevelopment.Biogeochemicalpathsbecomefairlystraightrelativetowildecosystems,withreducedrecycling,resultinginlargeflowsofwasteandlowtotalenergyefficiencies.Bycontrast,inwildecosystems,onepopulation'swastesareanotherpopulation'sresources,andsuccessionresultsinefficientexploitationofavailableresources.However,evenmodernizedcitiesmaystillbeintheearlieststagesofasuccessionthatmaytakecenturiesormillenniatocomplete."[104]: 720 Howmuchenergyisusedinrecyclingalsodependsonthetypeofmaterialbeingrecycledandtheprocessusedtodoso.Aluminiumisgenerallyagreedtousefarlessenergywhenrecycledratherthanbeingproducedfromscratch.TheEPAstatesthat"recyclingaluminumcans,forexample,saves95percentoftheenergyrequiredtomakethesameamountofaluminumfromitsvirginsource,bauxite."[105][106]In2009,morethanhalfofallaluminiumcansproducedcamefromrecycledaluminium.[107]Similarly,ithasbeenestimatedthatnewsteelproducedwithrecycledcansreducesgreenhousegasemissionsby75%.[108] Everyyear,millionsoftonsofmaterialsarebeingexploitedfromtheearth'scrust,andprocessedintoconsumerandcapitalgoods.Afterdecadestocenturies,mostofthesematerialsare"lost".Withtheexceptionofsomepiecesofartorreligiousrelics,theyarenolongerengagedintheconsumptionprocess.Wherearethey?Recyclingisonlyanintermediatesolutionforsuchmaterials,althoughitdoesprolongtheresidencetimeintheanthroposphere.Forthermodynamicreasons,however,recyclingcannotpreventthefinalneedforanultimatesink.[109]: 1 — P. H.Brunner EconomistStevenLandsburghassuggestedthatthesolebenefitofreducinglandfillspaceistrumpedbytheenergyneededandresultingpollutionfromtherecyclingprocess.[110]Others,however,havecalculatedthroughlife-cycleassessmentthatproducingrecycledpaperuseslessenergyandwaterthanharvesting,pulping,processing,andtransportingvirgintrees.[111]Whenlessrecycledpaperisused,additionalenergyisneededtocreateandmaintainfarmedforestsuntiltheseforestsareasself-sustainableasvirginforests. Otherstudieshaveshownthatrecyclinginitselfisinefficienttoperformthe"decoupling"ofeconomicdevelopmentfromthedepletionofnon-renewablerawmaterialsthatisnecessaryforsustainabledevelopment.[112]Theinternationaltransportationorrecyclematerialflowsthrough"... differenttradenetworksofthethreecountriesresultindifferentflows,decayrates,andpotentialrecyclingreturns".[113]: 1 Asglobalconsumptionofanaturalresourcesgrows,theirdepletionisinevitable.Thebestrecyclingcandoistodelay;completeclosureofmaterialloopstoachieve100percentrecyclingofnonrenewablesisimpossibleasmicro-tracematerialsdissipateintotheenvironmentcausingseveredamagetotheplanet'secosystems.[114][115][116]Historically,thiswasidentifiedasthemetabolicriftbyKarlMarx,whoidentifiedtheunequalexchangeratebetweenenergyandnutrientsflowingfromruralareastofeedurbancitiesthatcreateeffluentwastesdegradingtheplanet'secologicalcapital,suchaslossinsoilnutrientproduction.[117][118]EnergyconservationalsoleadstowhatisknownasJevon'sparadox,whereimprovementsinenergyefficiencylowersthecostofproductionandleadstoareboundeffectwhereratesofconsumptionandeconomicgrowthincreases.[116][119] ThisshopinNewYorkonlysellsitemsrecycledfromdemolishedbuildings. Costs[edit] Theamountofmoneyactuallysavedthroughrecyclingdependsontheefficiencyoftherecyclingprogramusedtodoit.TheInstituteforLocalSelf-Reliancearguesthatthecostofrecyclingdependsonvariousfactors,suchaslandfillfeesandtheamountofdisposalthatthecommunityrecycles.Itstatesthatcommunitiesbegintosavemoneywhentheytreatrecyclingasareplacementfortheirtraditionalwastesystemratherthananadd-ontoitandby"redesigningtheircollectionschedulesand/ortrucks".[120] Insomecases,thecostofrecyclablematerialsalsoexceedsthecostofrawmaterials.Virginplasticresincosts40percentlessthanrecycledresin.[121]Additionally,aUnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)studythattrackedthepriceofclearglassfrom15Julyto2August1991,foundthattheaveragecostpertonrangedfrom$40to$60[122]whileaUSGSreportshowsthatthecostpertonofrawsilicasandfromyears1993to1997fellbetween$17.33and$18.10.[123] Comparingthemarketcostofrecyclablematerialwiththecostofnewrawmaterialsignoreseconomicexternalities—thecoststhatarecurrentlynotcountedbythemarket.Creatinganewpieceofplastic,forinstance,maycausemorepollutionandbelesssustainablethanrecyclingasimilarpieceofplastic,butthesefactorsarenotcountedinmarketcost.Alifecycleassessmentcanbeusedtodeterminethelevelsofexternalitiesanddecidewhethertherecyclingmaybeworthwhiledespiteunfavorablemarketcosts.Alternatively,legalmeans(suchasacarbontax)canbeusedtobringexternalitiesintothemarket,sothatthemarketcostofthematerialbecomesclosetothetruecost. Workingconditions[edit] SomepeopleinBrazilearntheirlivingbycollectingandsortinggarbageandsellingthemforrecycling. Therecyclingofwasteelectricalandelectronicequipmentcancreateasignificantamountofpollution.ThisproblemisspecificallyoccurrentinIndiaandChina.Informalrecyclinginanundergroundeconomyofthesecountrieshasgeneratedanenvironmentalandhealthdisaster.Highlevelsoflead(Pb),polybrominateddiphenylethers(PBDEs),polychlorinateddioxinsandfurans,aswellaspolybrominateddioxinsandfurans(PCDD/FsandPBDD/Fs),concentratedintheair,bottomash,dust,soil,water,andsedimentsinareassurroundingrecyclingsites.[124]Thesematerialscanmakeworksitesharmfultotheworkersthemselvesandthesurroundingenvironment. Environmentalimpact[edit] EconomistStevenLandsburg,authorofapaperentitled"WhyIAmNotanEnvironmentalist",[125]claimedthatpaperrecyclingactuallyreducestreepopulations.Hearguesthatbecausepapercompanieshaveincentivestoreplenishtheirforests,largedemandsforpaperleadtolargeforestswhilereduceddemandforpaperleadstofewer"farmed"forests.[126] AmetalscrapworkerispicturedburninginsulatedcopperwiresforcopperrecoveryatAgbogbloshie,Ghana. Whenforestingcompaniescutdowntrees,moreareplantedintheirplace;however,such"farmed"forestsareinferiortonaturalforestsinseveralways.Farmedforestsarenotabletofixthesoilasquicklyasnaturalforests.Thiscancausewidespreadsoilerosionandoftenrequiringlargeamountsoffertilizertomaintainthesoil,whilecontaininglittletreeandwild-lifebiodiversitycomparedtovirginforests.[127]Also,thenewtreesplantedarenotasbigasthetreesthatwerecutdown,andtheargumentthattherewouldbe"moretrees"isnotcompellingtoforestryadvocateswhentheyarecountingsaplings. Inparticular,woodfromtropicalrainforestsisrarelyharvestedforpaperbecauseoftheirheterogeneity.[128]AccordingtotheUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChangesecretariat,theoverwhelmingdirectcauseofdeforestationissubsistencefarming(48%ofdeforestation)andcommercialagriculture(32%),whichislinkedtofood,notpaperproduction.[129] Othernon-conventionalmethodsofmaterialrecycling,likeWaste-to-Energy(WTE)systems,havegarneredincreasedattentionintherecentpastduetothepolarizingnatureoftheiremissions.Whileviewedasasustainablemethodofcapturingenergyfrommaterialwastefeedstocksbymany,othershavecitednumerousexplanationsforwhythetechnologyhasnotbeenscaledglobally.[130] Possibleincomelossandsocialcosts[edit] Insomecountries,recyclingisperformedbytheentrepreneurialpoorsuchasthekarungguni,zabbaleen,therag-and-boneman,wastepicker,andjunkman.Withthecreationoflargerecyclingorganizationsthatmaybeprofitable,eitherbylaworeconomiesofscale,[131][132]thepooraremorelikelytobedrivenoutoftherecyclingandtheremanufacturingjobmarket.Tocompensateforthislossofincome,asocietymayneedtocreateadditionalformsofsocietalprogramstohelpsupportthepoor.[133]Liketheparableofthebrokenwindow,thereisanetlosstothepoorandpossiblythewholeofasocietytomakerecyclingartificiallyprofitable,e.g.throughthelaw.However,inBrazilandArgentina,wastepickers/informalrecyclersworkalongsidetheauthorities,infullyorsemi-fundedcooperatives,allowinginformalrecyclingtobelegitimizedasapaidpublicsectorjob.[134] Becausethesocialsupportofacountryislikelytobelessthanthelossofincometothepoorundertakingrecycling,thereisagreaterchanceforthepoortocomeinconflictwiththelargerecyclingorganizations.[135][136]Thismeansfewerpeoplecandecideifcertainwasteismoreeconomicallyreusableinitscurrentformratherthanbeingreprocessed.Contrastedtotherecyclingpoor,theefficiencyoftheirrecyclingmayactuallybehigherforsomematerialsbecauseindividualshavegreatercontroloverwhatisconsidered"waste".[133] Onelabor-intensiveunderusedwasteiselectronicandcomputerwaste.Becausethiswastemaystillbefunctionalandwantedmostlybythoseonlowerincomes,whomayselloruseitatagreaterefficiencythanlargerecyclers. Somerecyclingadvocatesbelievethatlaissez-faireindividual-basedrecyclingdoesnotcoverallofsociety'srecyclingneeds.Thus,itdoesnotnegatetheneedforanorganizedrecyclingprogram.[133]Localgovernmentcanconsidertheactivitiesoftherecyclingpoorascontributingtotheruiningofproperty. Publicparticipationrates[edit] Single-streamrecyclingincreasespublicparticipationrates,butrequiresadditionalsorting. BetterrecyclingisapriorityintheEuropeanUnion,especiallyinCentralandEasternEuropeamongrespondentsofthe2020-21EuropeanInvestmentBankClimateSurvey. Changesthathavebeendemonstratedtoincreaserecyclingratesinclude: Single-streamrecycling Payasyouthrowfeesfortrash InastudydonebysocialpsychologistShawnBurn,[137]itwasfoundthatpersonalcontactwithindividualswithinaneighborhoodisthemosteffectivewaytoincreaserecyclingwithinacommunity.Inherstudy,shehad10blockleaderstalktotheirneighborsandpersuadethemtorecycle.Acomparisongroupwassentflierspromotingrecycling.Itwasfoundthattheneighborsthatwerepersonallycontactedbytheirblockleadersrecycledmuchmorethanthegroupwithoutpersonalcontact.Asaresultofthisstudy,ShawnBurnbelievesthatpersonalcontactwithinasmallgroupofpeopleisanimportantfactorinencouragingrecycling.AnotherstudydonebyStuartOskamp[138]examinestheeffectofneighborsandfriendsonrecycling.Itwasfoundinhisstudiesthatpeoplewhohadfriendsandneighborsthatrecycledweremuchmorelikelytoalsorecyclethanthosewhodidn'thavefriendsandneighborsthatrecycled. Manyschoolshavecreatedrecyclingawarenessclubsinordertogiveyoungstudentsaninsightonrecycling.Theseschoolsbelievethattheclubsactuallyencouragestudentstonotonlyrecycleatschoolbutathomeaswell. Recyclingofmetalsvariesextremelybytype.Titaniumandleadhaveanextremelyhighrecyclingratesofover90%.Copperandcobalthavehighratesofrecyclingaround75%.Onlyabouthalfofaluminumisrecycled.Mostoftheremainingmetalshaverecyclingratesofbelow35%,while34typesofmetalshaverecyclingratesofunder1%.[139] "Between1960and2000,theworldproductionofplasticresinsincreased25timesitsoriginalamount,whilerecoveryofthematerialremainedbelow5percent."[140]: 131 Manystudieshaveaddressedrecyclingbehaviourandstrategiestoencouragecommunityinvolvementinrecyclingprograms.Ithasbeenargued[141]thatrecyclingbehaviorisnotnaturalbecauseitrequiresafocusandappreciationforlong-termplanning,whereashumanshaveevolvedtobesensitivetoshort-termsurvivalgoals;andthattoovercomethisinnatepredisposition,thebestsolutionwouldbetousesocialpressuretocompelparticipationinrecyclingprograms.However,recentstudieshaveconcludedthatsocialpressuredoesnotworkinthiscontext.[142]Onereasonforthisisthatsocialpressurefunctionswellinsmallgroupsizesof50to150individuals(commontonomadichunter–gathererpeoples)butnotincommunitiesnumberinginthemillions,asweseetoday.Anotherreasonisthatindividualrecyclingdoesnottakeplaceinthepublicview. Followingtheincreasingpopularityofrecyclingcollectionbeingsenttothesamelandfillsastrash,somepeoplekeptonputtingrecyclablesontherecyclablesbin.[143] Furtherinformation:Recyclingratesbycountry Recyclinginart[edit] Uniseafish–madeofrecycledaluminumbeercans Artobjectsaremoreandmoreoftenmadefromrecycledmaterial. Seealso[edit] 2000scommoditiesboom E-Cycling Greening Indexofrecyclingarticles Listofelementsfacingshortage Listofwastemanagementacronyms Nutrientcycle Opticalsorting Recyclingsymbol Resourcerecovery Refurbishment(electronics) USPSPostOfficeBoxLobbyRecyclingprogram Portals: Ecology Environment References[edit] ^Villalba,G;Segarra,M;Fernández,A.I;Chimenos,J.M;Espiell,F(December2002)."Aproposalforquantifyingtherecyclabilityofmaterials".Resources,ConservationandRecycling.37(1):39–53.doi:10.1016/S0921-3449(02)00056-3. ^abcdeLienig,Jens;Bruemmer,Hans(2017)."RecyclingRequirementsandDesignforEnvironmentalCompliance".FundamentalsofElectronicSystemsDesign.pp. 193–218.doi:10.1007/978-3-319-55840-0_7.ISBN 978-3-319-55839-4. ^EuropeanCommission(2014)."EUWasteLegislation".Archivedfromtheoriginalon12March2014. ^Geissdoerfer,Martin;Savaget,Paulo;Bocken,NancyM.P.;Hultink,ErikJan(1February2017)."TheCircularEconomy–Anewsustainabilityparadigm?"(PDF).JournalofCleanerProduction.143:757–768.doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.12.048.S2CID 157449142. ^abcdefghijklmnopqrstTheLeagueofWomenVoters(1993).TheGarbagePrimer.NewYork:Lyons&Burford.pp. 35–72.ISBN 978-1-55821-250-3. ^ab"7ThingsYouDidn’tKnowAboutPlastic(andRecycling)"NationalGeographic.Retrieved26July2019. ^abBlackDogPublishing(2006).Recycle :asourcebook.London,UK:BlackDogPublishing.ISBN 978-1-904772-36-1. ^Wood,J.R.(2022)."Approachestointerrogatetheerasedhistoriesofrecycledarchaeologicalobjects".Archaeometry.64:187–205.doi:10.1111/arcm.12756. ^abcdefghijklmn"Thetruthaboutrecycling".TheEconomist.7June2007. ^Cleveland,CutlerJ.;Morris,ChristopherG.(15November2013).HandbookofEnergy:Chronologies,TopTenLists,andWordClouds.Elsevier.p. 461.ISBN 978-0-12-417019-3. ^Dadd-Redalia,Debra(1January1994).Sustainingtheearth:choosingconsumerproductsthataresafeforyou,yourfamily,andtheearth.NewYork:HearstBooks.p. 103.ISBN 978-0-688-12335-2.OCLC 29702410. ^Nongpluh,YoofisacaSyngkon.(2013).Knowallabout :reduce,reuse,recycle.Noronha,GuyC.,,EnergyandResourcesInstitute.NewDelhi.ISBN 978-1-4619-4003-6.OCLC 858862026. ^CarlA.Zimring(2005).CashforYourTrash:ScrapRecyclinginAmerica.NewBrunswick,NJ:RutgersUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-8135-4694-0. ^"sd_shire"(PDF).Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)on14October2012.Retrieved27October2012. ^Rethinkingeconomicincentivesforseparatecollection.ZeroWasteEurope&ReloopPlatform,2017 ^"Report:"OntheMakingofSilkPursesfromSows'Ears,"1921:Exhibits:InstituteArchives&SpecialCollections:MIT".mit.edu.Archivedfromtheoriginalon3June2016.Retrieved7July2016. ^abcPublicBroadcastingSystem(2007)."TheWarEpisode2:RationingandRecycling".Retrieved7July2016. ^OutoftheGarbage-PailintotheFire:fuelbricksnowaddedtothelistofthingssalvagedbysciencefromthenation'swaste,PopularSciencemonthly,February1919,page50-51,ScannedbyGoogleBooks:https://books.google.com/books?id=7igDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA50 ^"Recyclingthroughtheages:1970s".PlasticExpert.PlasticExpert.30July2014.Retrieved7March2015. ^abcde"Thepriceofvirtue".TheEconomist.7June2007. ^"CRCHistory–ComputerRecyclingCenter".www.crc.org.Retrieved29July2015. ^"Aboutus–SwicoRecycling".www.swicorecycling.ch.Retrieved29July2015. ^"Wheredoese-wasteendup?".www.greenpeace.org/.Greenpeace.24February2009.Retrieved29July2015. ^abKinver,Mark(3July2007)."Mechanicsofe-wasterecycling".BBC.Retrieved29July2015. ^"BulgariaopenslargestWEEErecyclingfactoryinEasternEurope".www.ask-eu.com.WtERTGermanyGmbH.12July2010.Retrieved29July2015. ^"EnvironComopenslargestWEEErecyclingfacility/waste&recyclingnews".www.greenwisebusiness.co.uk.TheSixtyMilePublishingCompany.4March2010.Archivedfromtheoriginalon15May2016.Retrieved29July2015. ^Goodman,PeterS.(11January2012)."WhereGadgetsGoToDie:E-WasteRecyclerOpensNewPlantinLasVegas".HuffingtonPost.Retrieved29July2015. ^Moses,Asher(19November2008)."Newplanttacklesourelectronicleftovers–BizTech–Technology–smh.com.au".www.smh.com.au.Retrieved29July2015. ^EuropeanCommission,RecyclingArchived3February2014attheWaybackMachine. ^RecyclingratesinEurope,EuropeanEnvironmentAgency. ^Recyclingofmunicipalwaste,EuropeanEnvironmentAgency,30November2017.(Dutch) ^Germany’srecyclingratecontinuestoleadEurope,ResourceRecycling,7February2017.(Dutch) ^UnitedNations(2017)ResolutionadoptedbytheGeneralAssemblyon6July2017,WorkoftheStatisticalCommissionpertainingtothe2030AgendaforSustainableDevelopment(A/RES/71/313) ^Hook,Leslie;Reed,John(24October2018)."Whytheworld'srecyclingsystemstoppedworking".FinancialTimes.Archivedfromtheoriginalon25October2018.Retrieved25October2018. ^"ABeverageContainerDepositLawforHawaii".www.opala.org.City&CountyofHonolulu,DepartmentofEnvironmentalServices.October2002.Archivedfromtheoriginalon22August2021.Retrieved31July2015. ^EuropeanCouncil."TheProducerResponsibilityPrincipleoftheWEEEDirective"(PDF).Retrieved7July2016. ^"RegulatoryPolicyCenter —PropertyMatters —JamesV.DeLong".Archivedfromtheoriginalon14April2008.Retrieved28February2008. ^Web-Dictionary.com(2013)."Recyclate".Archivedfromtheoriginalon7April2014. ^Freudenrich,C.(2014)(14December2007)."HowPlasticsWork".Retrieved7July2016. ^abcdefDEFRA(2013)."QualityActionPlanProposalstoPromoteHighQualityRecyclingofDryRecyclates"(PDF). ^"HowtoRecycleTinorSteelCans"Earth911.com.Retrieved26July2019. ^abcdefgTheScottishGovernment(2012)(5October2012)."RecyclateQualityActionPlan–ConsultationPaper".Archivedfromtheoriginalon2February2013.Retrieved3April2014. ^abTheHighlandCouncil(2013)."ReportbyDirectorofTransport,EnvironmentalandCommunityServices"(PDF).Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)on7April2014. ^Waldrop,M.Mitchell(1October2020)."Onebinfuture:Howmixingtrashandrecyclingcanwork".KnowableMagazine.doi:10.1146/knowable-092920-3.S2CID 224860591. ^"TheStateofMulti-TenantRecyclinginOregon"(PDF).April2018. ^abcSinger,Paul(21April2017)."Recyclingmarketinaheapoftrouble".USAToday.Melbourne,Florida.pp. 1B,2B.Retrieved21April2017. ^Baechler,Christian;DeVuono,Matthew;Pearce,JoshuaM.(2013)."DistributedRecyclingofWastePolymerintoRepRapFeedstock".RapidPrototypingJournal.19(2):118–125.doi:10.1108/13552541311302978.S2CID 15980607. ^M.Kreiger,G.C.Anzalone,M.L.Mulder,A.GloverandJ.MPearce(2013).DistributedRecyclingofPost-ConsumerPlasticWasteinRuralAreas.MRSOnlineProceedingsLibrary,1492,mrsf12-1492-g04-06doi:10.1557/opl.2013.258.openaccess ^Kreiger,M.A.;Mulder,M.L.;Glover,A.G.;Pearce,J.M.(2014)."LifeCycleAnalysisofDistributedRecyclingofPost-consumerHighDensityPolyethylenefor3-DPrintingFilament".JournalofCleanerProduction.70:90–96.doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.02.009. ^"HowrecyclingrobotshavespreadacrossNorthAmerica".ResourceRecyclingNews.7May2019.Retrieved29August2019. ^"AMPRoboticsannounceslargestdeploymentofAI-guidedrecyclingrobots".TheRobotReport.27June2019.Retrieved29August2019. ^None,None(10August2015)."CommonRecyclableMaterials"(PDF).UnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency.Retrieved2February2013. ^"RecyclingWithoutSorting:EngineersCreateRecyclingPlantThatRemovesTheNeedToSort".ScienceDaily.1October2007.Archivedfromtheoriginalon31August2008. ^"Sortationbythenumbers".ResourceRecyclingNews.1October2018.Retrieved29August2019. ^Goodship,Vannessa(2007).IntroductiontoPlasticsRecycling.iSmithersRapraPublishing.ISBN 978-1-84735-078-7.[page needed] ^None,None."WhatHappenstoMyRecycling?".1coast.com.au.Archivedfromtheoriginalon11August2014.Retrieved21July2014. ^NoAuthor,NoAuthor."BestRecyclingProgramsintheUS&AroundtheWorld".cmfg.com.Archivedfromtheoriginalon12May2015.Retrieved1February2013.{{citeweb}}:|last=hasgenericname(help) ^"MayorLeeAnnouncesSanFranciscoReaches80PercentLandfillWasteDiversion,LeadsAllCitiesinNorthAmerica".SanFranciscoDepartmentoftheEnvironment.5October2012.Retrieved9June2014. ^"UKstatisticsonwaste–2010to2012"(PDF).UKGovernment.UKGovernment.25September2014.p. 2and6.Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)on3December2017.Retrieved3December2017. ^Polymermodifiedcementsandrepairmortars.DanielsLJ,PhDthesisLancasterUniversity1992 ^ab"Publications–InternationalResourcePanel".unep.org.Archivedfromtheoriginalon11November2012.Retrieved7July2016. ^"HowUrbanMiningWorks".Archivedfromtheoriginalon11July2010.Retrieved9August2013. ^McDonald,N.C.;Pearce,J.M.(2010)."ProducerResponsibilityandRecyclingSolarPhotovoltaicModules"(PDF).EnergyPolicy.38(11):7041–7047.doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2010.07.023.hdl:1974/6122.hdl:1974/6122. ^Hogye,ThomasQ."TheAnatomyofaComputerRecyclingProcess"(PDF).CaliforniaDepartmentofResourcesRecyclingandRecovery.Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)on23September2015.Retrieved13October2014. ^"SweeepKuusakoski–Resources–BBCDocumentary".www.sweeepkuusakoski.co.uk.Retrieved31July2015. ^"SweeepKuusakoski–GlassRecycling–BBCfilmingofCRTfurnace".www.sweeepkuusakoski.co.uk.Retrieved31July2015. ^Thedarksideofgreenenergiesdocumentary ^Thedarksideofgreenenergiesdocumentary ^Layton,Julia(22April2009).""Eco"-plastic:recycledplastic".Science.howstuffworks.com.Retrieved9June2014. ^Werner,Debra(21October2019)."MadeinSpacetolaunchcommercialrecyclertospacestation".SpaceNews.Retrieved22October2019. ^Siegel,R.P.(7August2019)."Eastmanadvancestwochemicalrecyclingoptions".GreenBiz.Retrieved29August2019. ^"RESEMALeadingPyrolysisPlantManufacturer".RESEMPyrolysisPlant.Archivedfromtheoriginalon18February2013.Retrieved20August2012. ^PlasticRecyclingcodesArchived21July2011attheWaybackMachine,AmericanChemistry ^AboutresinidentificationcodesArchived19October2010attheWaybackMachineAmericanChemistry ^"RecyclingSymbolsonPlastics –WhatDoRecyclingCodesonPlasticsMean".TheDailyGreen.25November2008.Retrieved29February2012. ^Unlessotherwiseindicated,thisdataistakenfromTheLeagueofWomenVoters(1993).TheGarbagePrimer.NewYork:Lyons&Burford.pp. 35–72.ISBN 978-1-55821-250-3.,whichattributes,"GarbageSolutions:APublicOfficialsGuidetoRecyclingandAlternativeSolidWasteManagementTechnologies,ascitedinEnergySavingsfromRecycling,January/February1989;and Worldwatch76MiningUrbanWastes:ThePotentialforRecycling,April1987." ^"Recyclingmetals —aluminiumandsteel".Archivedfromtheoriginalon16October2007.Retrieved1November2007. ^"UCO:Recycling".Archivedfromtheoriginalon12March2016.Retrieved22October2015. ^"FromWastetoJobs:WhatAchieving75PercentRecyclingMeansforCalifornia"(PDF).March2014.p. 2. ^NoAuthor,NoAuthor."RecyclingBenefitstotheEconomy".all-recycling-facts.com.Archivedfromtheoriginalon24February2021.Retrieved1February2013.{{citeweb}}:|last=hasgenericname(help) ^DanielK.Benjamin(2010)."Recyclingmythsrevisited".Archivedfromtheoriginalon18May2015.Retrieved19January2021. ^"ARecyclingRevolution".recycling-revolution.com.Retrieved1February2013. ^Lavee,Doron(26November2007)."IsMunicipalSolidWasteRecyclingEconomicallyEfficient?".EnvironmentalManagement.40(6):926–943.Bibcode:2007EnMan..40..926L.doi:10.1007/s00267-007-9000-7.PMID 17687596.S2CID 40085245. ^Vigso,Dorte(2004)."Depositsonsingleusecontainers —asocialcost–benefitanalysisoftheDanishdepositsystemforsingleusedrinkcontainers".WasteManagement&Research.22(6):477–87.doi:10.1177/0734242X04049252.PMID 15666450.S2CID 13596709. ^abcdGunter,Matthew(1January2007)."DoEconomistsReachaConclusiononHouseholdandMunicipalRecycling?".EconJournalWatch.4(1):83–111.Archivedfromtheoriginalon11December2015.AltURLArchived15May2019attheWaybackMachine ^abHowardHusock(23June2020)."TheDecliningCaseforMunicipalRecycling".FoundationforEconomicEducation. ^SerenaNgandAngelaChen(29April2015)."UnprofitableRecyclingWeighsOnWasteManagement".WallStreetJournal.[permanentdeadlink] ^DanielK.Benjamin(2010)."Recyclingandwastehave$6.7billioneconomicimpactinOhio"(PDF). ^"MuchtoxiccomputerwastelandsinThirdWorld".USAToday.25February2002.Retrieved6November2012. ^"EnvironmentalandhealthdamageinChina".svtc.igc.org.9November2003.Archivedfromtheoriginalon9November2003.Retrieved6November2012. ^"Illegaldumpinganddamagetohealthandenvironment".Archivedfromtheoriginalon9November2012.Retrieved6November2012. ^HoggM."Wasteoutshinesgoldaspricessurge".FinancialTimes.(registrationrequired) ^Desimone,Bonnie(21February2006)."RewardingRecyclers,andFindingGoldintheGarbage".TheNewYorkTimes. ^LynnR.Kahle;EdaGurel-Atay,eds.(2014).CommunicatingSustainabilityfortheGreenEconomy.NewYork:M.E.Sharpe.ISBN 978-0-7656-3680-5. ^Afterlife:AnEssentialGuideToDesignForDisassembly,byAlexDiener ^"FactSheetsonDesigningfortheDisassemblyandDeconstructionofBuildings".epa.gov.EPA.14March2016.Retrieved12March2019. ^Huesemann,MichaelH.(2003)."Thelimitsoftechnologicalsolutionstosustainabledevelopment".CleanTechnologiesandEnvironmentalPolicy.5(1):21–34.doi:10.1007/s10098-002-0173-8.S2CID 55193459. ^Tierney,John(30June1996)."RecyclingIsGarbage".TheNewYorkTimes.p. 3.Archivedfromtheoriginalon6December2008.Retrieved28February2008. ^Morris,Jeffrey(1July2005)."ComparativeLCAsforCurbsideRecyclingVersusEitherLandfillingorIncinerationwithEnergyRecovery(12pp)".TheInternationalJournalofLifeCycleAssessment.10(4):273–284.doi:10.1065/lca2004.09.180.10.S2CID 110948339. ^Oskamp,Stuart(1995)."ResourceConservationandRecycling:BehaviorandPolicy".JournalofSocialIssues.51(4):157–177.doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.1995.tb01353.x. ^Pimenteira,C.A.P.;Pereira,A.S.;Oliveira,L.B.;Rosa,L.P.;Reis,M.M.;Henriques,R.M.(2004)."EnergyconservationandCO2emissionreductionsduetorecyclinginBrazil".WasteManagement.24(9):889–897.doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2004.07.001.PMID 15504666. ^abBrown,M.T.;Buranakarn,Vorasun(2003)."Emergyindicesandratiosforsustainablematerialcyclesandrecycleoptions".Resources,ConservationandRecycling.38(1):1–22.doi:10.1016/S0921-3449(02)00093-9. ^EnergyInformationAdministration"RecyclingPaper&Glass".Retrieved18October2006. ^Decker,EthanH.;Elliott,Scott;Smith,FelisaA.;Blake,DonaldR.;Rowland,F.Sherwood(November2000)."EnergyandMaterialflowthroughtheurbanEcosystem".AnnualReviewofEnergyandtheEnvironment.25(1):685–740.CiteSeerX 10.1.1.582.2325.doi:10.1146/annurev.energy.25.1.685.OCLC 42674488. ^EnvironmentalProtectionAgencyFrequentlyAskedQuestionsaboutRecyclingandWasteManagementArchived27September2006attheWaybackMachine.Retrieved18October2006. ^"ITPAluminum:EnergyandEnvironmentalProfileoftheU.S.AluminumIndustry"(PDF).Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)on11August2011.Retrieved6November2012. ^"TheRecyclingofAluminumCansVersusPlastic".Archivedfromtheoriginalon26October2011.Retrieved21October2011. ^"BytheNumbers"CanCentral.com.Retrieved18August2019. ^Brunner,P. H.(1999)."Insearchofthefinalsink".Environ.Sci.&Pollut.Res.6(1):1.doi:10.1007/bf02987111.PMID 19005854.S2CID 46384723. ^Landsburg,StevenE.TheArmchairEconomist.p.86. ^Selke116 ^Grosse,F.(2010)."Isrecycling'partofthesolution'?Theroleofrecyclinginanexpandingsocietyandaworldoffiniteresources".S.A.P.I.EN.S.3(1):1–17. ^Sahni,S.;Gutowski,T.G.(2011)."Yourscrap,myscrap!Theflowofscrapmaterialsthroughinternationaltrade"(PDF).IEEEInternationalSymposiumonSustainableSystemsandTechnology(ISSST).pp. 1–6.doi:10.1109/ISSST.2011.5936853.ISBN 978-1-61284-394-0.S2CID 2435609. ^Lehmann,Steffen(15March2011)."ResourceRecoveryandMaterialsFlowintheCity:ZeroWasteandSustainableConsumptionasParadigmsinUrbanDevelopment".SustainableDevelopmentLaw&Policy.11(1). ^Zaman,A.U.;Lehmann,S.(2011)."Challengesandopportunitiesintransformingacityintoa'ZeroWasteCity'".Challenges.2(4):73–93.doi:10.3390/challe2040073. ^abHuesemann,M.;Huesemann,J.(2011).Techno-fix:WhyTechnologyWon'tSaveUsortheEnvironment.NewSocietyPublishers.p. 464.ISBN 978-0-86571-704-6.Retrieved7July2016. ^Clark,Brett;Foster,JohnBellamy(2009)."EcologicalImperialismandtheGlobalMetabolicRift:UnequalExchangeandtheGuano/NitratesTrade".InternationalJournalofComparativeSociology.50(3–4):311–334.doi:10.1177/0020715209105144.S2CID 154627746. ^Foster,J.B.;Clark,B.(2011).TheEcologicalRift:CapitalismsWarontheEarth.MonthlyReviewPress.p. 544.ISBN 978-1-58367-218-1. ^Alcott,Blake(2005)."Jevons'paradox".EcologicalEconomics.54(1):9–21.doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2005.03.020.hdl:1942/22574. ^WastetoWealthTheFiveMostDangerousMythsAboutRecyclingArchived29May2009attheWaybackMachine.Retrieved18October2006. ^UnitedStatesDepartmentofEnergyConservingEnergy –RecyclingPlastics.Retrieved10November2006. ^EnvironmentalProtectionAgencyMarketsforRecoveredGlass. ^UnitedStatesGeologicalSurveyMineralCommoditySummaries.Retrieved10November2006. ^Sepúlveda,Alejandra;Schluep,Mathias;Renaud,FabriceG.;Streicher,Martin;Kuehr,Ruediger;Hagelüken,Christian;Gerecke,AndreasC.(2010)."Areviewoftheenvironmentalfateandeffectsofhazardoussubstancesreleasedfromelectricalandelectronicequipmentsduringrecycling:ExamplesfromChinaandIndia".EnvironmentalImpactAssessmentReview.30(1):28–41.doi:10.1016/j.eiar.2009.04.001. ^Landsburg,StevenE.(2012)."WhyIAmNotAnEnvironmentalist".TheArmchairEconomist:EconomicsandEverydayLife.SimonandSchuster.pp. 279–290.ISBN 978-1-4516-5173-7. ^Landsburg,StevenA.TheArmchairEconomist.p.81.[fullcitationneeded] ^Baird,Colin(2004).EnvironmentalChemistry(3rded.).W.H.Freeman.ISBN 0-7167-4877-0.[page needed] ^deJesus,Simeon(1975)."Howtomakepaperinthetropics".Unasylva.27(3). ^UNFCCC(2007)."Investmentandfinancialflowstoaddressclimatechange"(PDF).unfccc.int.UNFCCC.p. 81.Retrieved7July2016. ^Towie,Narelle(28February2019)."Burningissue:arewaste-to-energyplantsagoodidea?".TheGuardian. ^"TooGoodToThrowAway–AppendixA".NRDC.30June1996.Retrieved6November2012. ^MissionPoliceStationArchived13May2012attheWaybackMachine ^abcPBSNewsHour,16February2010.ReportontheZabaleen ^Medina,Martin(2000)."ScavengercooperativesinAsiaandLatinAmerica".Resources,ConservationandRecycling.31(1):51–69.CiteSeerX 10.1.1.579.6981.doi:10.1016/s0921-3449(00)00071-9. ^"TheNews-Herald–Scrapmetalasteal".Zwire.com.Retrieved6November2012.[permanentdeadlink] ^"RaidsonRecyclingBinsCostlyToBayArea".NPR.19July2008.Retrieved6November2012. ^Burn,Shawn(2006)."SocialPsychologyandtheStimulationofRecyclingBehaviors:TheBlockLeaderApproach".JournalofAppliedSocialPsychology.21(8):611–629.CiteSeerX 10.1.1.462.1934.doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1991.tb00539.x. ^Oskamp,Stuart(1995)."ResourceConservationandRecycling:BehaviorandPolicy".JournalofSocialIssues.51(4):157–177.doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.1995.tb01353.x. ^RecyclingRatesofMetals:Astatusreport.UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme.2011.ISBN 978-92-807-3161-3. ^Moore,C.J.(2008)."Syntheticpolymersinthemarineenvironment:Arapidlyincreasing,long-termthreat".EnvironmentalResearch.108(2):131–139.Bibcode:2008ER....108..131M.doi:10.1016/j.envres.2008.07.025.PMID 18949831. ^Schackelford,T.K.(2006)."Recycling,evolutionandthestructureofhumanpersonality".PersonalityandIndividualDifferences.41(8):1551–1556.doi:10.1016/j.paid.2006.07.020. ^Pratarelli,MarcE.(4February2010)."Socialpressureandrecycling:abriefreview,commentaryandextensions".S.A.P.I.EN.S.3(1).Retrieved6November2012. ^Chaudhuri,Saabira(19December2019)."RecyclingRethink:WhattoDoWithTrashNowThatChinaWon'tTakeIt".TheWallStreetJournal. Furtherreading[edit] Ackerman,F.(1997).WhyDoWeRecycle?:Markets,Values,andPublicPolicy.IslandPress.ISBN 1-55963-504-5,ISBN 978-1-55963-504-2 Ayres,R.U.(1994)."IndustrialMetabolism:TheoryandPolicy",In:Allenby,B.R.,andD.J.Richards,TheGreeningofIndustrialEcosystems.NationalAcademyPress,Washington,DC,pp. 23–37. Braungart,M.,McDonough,W.(2002).CradletoCradle:RemakingtheWayWeMakeThings.NorthPointPress,ISBN 0-86547-587-3. Huesemann,M.H.,Huesemann,J.A.(2011).Technofix:WhyTechnologyWon'tSaveUsortheEnvironment,"Challenge#3:CompleteRecyclingofNon-RenewableMaterialsandWastes",NewSocietyPublishers,GabriolaIsland,BritishColumbia,Canada,ISBN 0-86571-704-4,pp. 135–137. Lienig,Jens;Bruemmer,Hans(2017)."RecyclingRequirementsandDesignforEnvironmentalCompliance".FundamentalsofElectronicSystemsDesign.pp. 193–218.doi:10.1007/978-3-319-55840-0_7.ISBN 978-3-319-55839-4. Minter,Adam(2015).JunkyardPlanet:TravelsintheBillion-DollarTrashTrade.BloomsburyPress.ISBN 978-1608197934. Porter,R.C.(2002).TheEconomicsofWaste.ResourcesfortheFuture.ISBN 1-891853-42-2,ISBN 978-1-891853-42-5 Sheffield,H.Sweden’srecyclingissorevolutionary,thecountryhasrunoutofrubbish(December2016),TheIndependent(UK) Tierney,J.(3October2015)."TheReignofRecycling".TheNewYorkTimes. Externallinks[edit] LookuprecyclinginWiktionary,thefreedictionary. WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedtoRecycling. LibraryresourcesaboutRecycling Resourcesinyourlibrary Resourcesinotherlibraries RecyclingatCurlie Relatedjournals[edit] Seealso:Category:Wastemanagementjournals EnvironmentandBehavior InternationalJournalofPhysicalDistribution&LogisticsManagement JournalofAppliedSocialPsychology JournalofEnvironmentalPsychology JournalofEnvironmentalSystems JournalofIndustrialEcology JournalofSocio-Economics JournalofUrbanEconomics PsychologyandMarketing Recycling:NorthAmerica'sRecyclingandCompostingJournal Resources,ConservationandRecycling WasteManagement&Research vteRecyclingMaterials Aluminium Asphalt Concrete Copper Cotton Energy Glass Gypsum Paper Plastic Refrigerant Scrap Timber Cookingoil Water Products Appliances Automotiveoil Batteries Bottles PETbottles Computers Drugs Fluorescentlamps Lumber Mobilephones Paint Ships Textiles Tires Vehicles Apparatus Bins Bluebags Blueboxes Codes Collection Materialsrecoveryfacility Wastesorting Countries Ratebycountry Australia Brazil Canada Ireland Israel Japan Malaysia TheNetherlands Switzerland Taiwan UnitedKingdom NorthernIreland UnitedStates Concepts Circulareconomy Dematerialization Downcycling Durablegood Eco-industrialpark Ecodesign Extendedproducerresponsibility Greeneconomy Industrialecology Industrialmetabolism Interchangeableparts Landrecycling Materialflowanalysis Precycling Productstewardship Recycling(ecological) Refill(scheme) Repairability Resourcerecovery Reusablepackaging Reuseofbottles Reuseofexcreta Repurposing Reuse Righttorepair Symbol(GreenDot) Upcycling Urbanlumberjacking Wastehierarchy Wasteminimisation Wastepicking Zerowaste Seealso Cogeneration Composting Containerdepositlegislation Dumpsterdiving Ethicalconsumerism Freeganism Reversevendingmachine Simpleliving Waste Waste-to-energy Wastecollection Wastemanagementlaw Wastemanagement Environmentportal Category bycountry bymaterial byproduct organizations Index Commons vteBiosolids,waste,andwastemanagementMajortypes Agriculturalwastewater Biodegradablewaste Biomedicalwaste Brownwaste Chemicalwaste Constructionwaste Demolitionwaste Electronicwaste bycountry Foodwaste Greenwaste Hazardouswaste Heatwaste Industrialwaste Industrialwastewater Litter Marinedebris Miningwaste Municipalsolidwaste Opendefecation Packagingwaste Post-consumerwaste Radioactivewaste Scrapmetal Sewage Sharpswaste Surfacerunoff Toxicwaste Processes Anaerobicdigestion Balefill Biodegradation Composting Gardenwastedumping Illegaldumping Incineration Landfill Landfillmining Mechanicalbiologicaltreatment Mechanicalsorting Photodegradation Recycling Resourcerecovery Sewagetreatment Urbanmining Wastecollection Wastesorting Wastetrade Wastetreatment Waste-to-energy Countries Armenia Australia Bangladesh Brazil HongKong India Japan Kazakhstan NewZealand Russia SouthKorea Switzerland Taiwan Thailand Turkey UnitedKingdom UnitedStates Agreements BamakoConvention BaselConvention EUdirectives batteries framework incineration landfills RoHS vehicles wastewater WEEE LondonConvention OsloConvention OSPARConvention Occupations Sanitationworker Streetsweeper Wastecollector Wastepicker Othertopics BlueRibbonCommissiononAmerica'sNuclearFuture China'swasteimportban Cleanerproduction Downcycling Eco-industrialpark Extendedproducerresponsibility High-levelradioactivewastemanagement Historyofwastemanagement Landfillfire Sewageregulationandadministration Upcycling Wastehierarchy Wastelegislation Wasteminimisation Zerowaste  Environmentportal  Category:Waste Index Journals Lists Organizations vteEnvironmentaltechnology Appropriatetechnology Cleantechnology Environmentaldesign Environmentalimpactassessment Sustainabledevelopment Sustainabletechnology Pollution Airpollution(control dispersionmodeling) Industrialecology Solidwastetreatment Wastemanagement Water(agriculturalwastewatertreatment industrialwastewatertreatment sewagetreatment waste-watertreatmenttechnologies waterpurification) Sustainableenergy Efficientenergyuse Electrification Energydevelopment Energyrecovery Fuel(alternativefuel biofuel carbon-neutralfuel hydrogentechnologies) Listofenergystorageprojects Renewableenergy commercialization transition Transportation(electricvehicle hybridvehicle) Conservation Birthcontrol Building(green natural sustainablearchitecture NewUrbanism NewClassical) Natureconservation Conservationbiology Ecoforestry Environmentalmovement Environmentalremediation Greencomputing Landrehabilitation Permaculture Recycling vteSustainability Outline Index Principles Anthropocene Earthsystemgovernance Ecologicalmodernization Environmentalgovernance Environmentalism Globalcatastrophicrisk Humanimpactontheenvironment Planetaryboundaries Socialsustainability Stewardship Sustainabledevelopment Consumption Anthropization Anti-consumerism Circulareconomy EarthOvershootDay Ecologicalfootprint Ethical Micro-sustainability Over-consumption Simpleliving Steady-stateeconomy Sustainabilityadvertising Sustainabilitybrand Sustainabilitymarketingmyopia Sustainable Systemicchangeresistance Tragedyofthecommons Worldpopulation Birthcontrol Demographictransition Familyplanning Control Sustainablepopulation Women'seducationandempowerment Technology Appropriate Environmental Naturalbuilding Biodiversity Biosecurity Biosphere Conservationbiology Endangeredspecies Holoceneextinction Invasivespecies Energy Carbonfootprint Climatechangemitigation Conservation Descent Efficiency Electrification Emissionstrading Fossil-fuelphase-out Peakoil Poverty Reboundeffect Renewable Food Civicagriculture Community-supportedagriculture Forestgardening Foodscaping Local Permaculture Security Sustainableagriculture Sustainablefishery Urbanhorticulture Vegetableboxscheme Water Conservation Crisis Efficiency Footprint Reclaimed Sanitation Accountability Sustainabilityaccounting Sustainabilitymeasurement Sustainabilitymetricsandindices Sustainabilityreporting Standardsandcertification Sustainableyield Applications Organicmovement Advertising Architecture Art Business City Collegeprograms Community Design Ecovillage EducationforSustainableDevelopment Fashion Gardening Geopark Greenmarketing Industries Landscapearchitecture Living Low-impactdevelopment Sustainablemarket Organizations Packaging Practices Procurement Space Tourism Transport Urbandrainagesystems Urbaninfrastructure Urbanism Management Environmental Fisheries Forest Landscape Materials Naturalresource Planetary Waste Agreementsandconferences UNConferenceontheHumanEnvironment(Stockholm1972) BrundtlandtCommissionReport(1983) OurCommonFuture(1987) EarthSummit(1992) RioDeclarationonEnvironmentandDevelopment(1992) Agenda21(1992) ConventiononBiologicalDiversity(1992) ICPDProgrammeofAction(1994) LisbonPrinciples(1997) KyotoProtocol(1997) EarthCharter(2000) UNMillenniumDeclaration(2000) EarthSummit2002(Rio+10,Johannesburg) UNConferenceonSustainableDevelopment(Rio+20,2012) SustainableDevelopmentGoals(2015) ParisAgreement(2015) UNOceanConference(2017) Category Lists Science Studies Degrees AuthoritycontrolNationallibraries France(data) Germany Israel 2 UnitedStates 2 Other NationalArchives(US) 2 Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Recycling&oldid=1101918796" Categories:RecyclingEnergyconversionWastemanagementconceptsWaterconservationHiddencategories:WebarchivetemplatewaybacklinksWikipediaarticlesneedingpagenumbercitationsfromApril2021CS1errors:genericnameAllarticleswithdeadexternallinksArticleswithdeadexternallinksfromJanuary2022ArticleswithpermanentlydeadexternallinksPageswithloginrequiredreferencesorsourcesAllarticleswithincompletecitationsArticleswithincompletecitationsfromApril2021ArticleswithdeadexternallinksfromNovember2017ArticleswithshortdescriptionShortdescriptionisdifferentfromWikidataWikipediapendingchangesprotectedpagesUsedmydatesfromDecember2019UseAmericanEnglishfromSeptember2017AllWikipediaarticleswritteninAmericanEnglishAllarticleswithunsourcedstatementsArticleswithunsourcedstatementsfromMarch2019ArticleswithunsourcedstatementsfromOctober2019WikipediaarticlesneedingclarificationfromMarch2019AllWikipediaarticlesneedingclarificationAllarticleswithspecificallymarkedweasel-wordedphrasesArticleswithspecificallymarkedweasel-wordedphrasesfromJune2022ArticleswithunsourcedstatementsfromJune2022Articleswithspecificallymarkedweasel-wordedphrasesfromDecember2017CommonscategorylinkisonWikidataArticleswithCurlielinksArticleswithBNFidentifiersArticleswithGNDidentifiersArticleswithJ9UidentifiersArticleswithLCCNidentifiersArticleswithNARAidentifiersArticleswithmultipleidentifiersArticlescontainingvideoclips Navigationmenu Personaltools NotloggedinTalkContributionsCreateaccountLogin Namespaces ArticleTalk English Views ReadEditViewhistory More Search Navigation MainpageContentsCurrenteventsRandomarticleAboutWikipediaContactusDonate Contribute HelpLearntoeditCommunityportalRecentchangesUploadfile Tools WhatlinkshereRelatedchangesUploadfileSpecialpagesPermanentlinkPageinformationCitethispageWikidataitem Print/export DownloadasPDFPrintableversion Inotherprojects WikimediaCommonsWikinews Languages العربيةAragonésAsturianuAzərbaycancaБашҡортсаБългарскиBoarischBrezhonegCatalàЧӑвашлаČeštinaCymraegDanskDeutschEestiΕλληνικάEspañolEsperantoEuskaraفارسیFrançaisGaeilgeGalegoગુજરાતી한국어Հայերենहिन्दीHrvatskiBahasaIndonesiaИронÍslenskaItalianoעבריתಕನ್ನಡKiswahiliKreyòlayisyenLatinaLatviešuLëtzebuergeschLietuviųMagyarМакедонскиമലയാളംBahasaMelayuMirandésNederlands日本語NorskbokmålNorsknynorskNouormandOccitanਪੰਜਾਬੀPolskiPortuguêsRomânăRunaSimiРусскийScotsShqipසිංහලSimpleEnglishSlovenčinaSlovenščinaکوردیСрпски/srpskiSrpskohrvatski/српскохрватскиSuomiSvenskaதமிழ்ไทยTürkçeУкраїнськаVènetoTiếngViệt吴语粵語Zazaki中文 Editlinks