Conscience - Wikipedia

Conscience is a cognitive process that elicits emotion and rational associations based on an individual's moral philosophy or value system. Conscience FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Moralphilosophyorvaluesofanindividual Forotheruses,seeConscience(disambiguation)."Scruples"redirectshere.Forotheruses,seeScruples(disambiguation).NottobeconfusedwithConsciousnessorConscientiousness. VincentvanGogh,1890.Kröller-MüllerMuseum.TheGoodSamaritan(afterDelacroix). Conscienceisacognitiveprocessthatelicitsemotionandrationalassociationsbasedonanindividual'smoralphilosophyorvaluesystem.Consciencestandsincontrasttoelicitedemotionorthoughtduetoassociationsbasedonimmediatesensoryperceptionsandreflexiveresponses,asinsympatheticcentralnervoussystemresponses.Incommonterms,conscienceisoftendescribedasleadingtofeelingsofremorsewhenapersoncommitsanactthatconflictswiththeirmoralvalues.TheextenttowhichconscienceinformsmoraljudgmentbeforeanactionandwhethersuchmoraljudgmentsareorshouldbebasedonreasonhasoccasioneddebatethroughmuchofmodernhistorybetweentheoriesofbasicsinethicofhumanlifeinjuxtapositiontothetheoriesofromanticismandotherreactionarymovementsaftertheendoftheMiddleAges. Religiousviewsofconscienceusuallyseeitaslinkedtoamoralityinherentinallhumans,toabeneficentuniverseand/ortodivinity.Thediverseritualistic,mythical,doctrinal,legal,institutionalandmaterialfeaturesofreligionmaynotnecessarilycoherewithexperiential,emotive,spiritualorcontemplativeconsiderationsabouttheoriginandoperationofconscience.[1]Commonsecularorscientificviewsregardthecapacityforconscienceasprobablygeneticallydetermined,withitssubjectprobablylearnedorimprintedaspartofaculture.[2] Commonlyusedmetaphorsforconscienceincludethe"voicewithin",the"innerlight",[3]orevenSocrates'relianceonwhattheGreekscalledhis"daimōnicsign",anaverting(ἀποτρεπτικόςapotreptikos)innervoiceheardonlywhenhewasabouttomakeamistake.Conscience,asisdetailedinsectionsbelow,isaconceptinnationalandinternationallaw,[4]isincreasinglyconceivedofasapplyingtotheworldasawhole,[5]hasmotivatednumerousnotableactsforthepublicgood[6]andbeenthesubjectofmanyprominentexamplesofliterature,musicandfilm.[7] Contents 1Views 1.1Religious 1.2Secular 1.2.1Conscienceasasociety-forminginstinct 1.2.2Evolutionarybiology 1.2.3Neuroscienceandartificialconscience 1.3Philosophical 1.3.1Medieval 1.3.2Modern 2Conscientiousactsandthelaw 3Worldconscience 4Notableexamplesofmodernactsbasedonconscience 5Inliterature,art,film,andmusic 6Seealso 7References 8Externallinks Views[edit] Furtherinformation:OriginsofmoralityandMorality Althoughhumanityhasnogenerallyaccepteddefinitionofconscienceoruniversalagreementaboutitsroleinethicaldecision-making,threeapproacheshaveaddressedit:[8] Religiousviews Secularviews Philosophicalviews Religious[edit] Furtherinformation:Religiousbelief,Philosophyofreligion,andSpirituality SeatedBuddha,Gandhara,2ndcenturyCE.TheBuddhalinkedconsciencewithcompassionforthosewhomustendurecravingsandsufferingintheworlduntilrightconductculminatesinrightmindfulnessandrightcontemplation. IntheliterarytraditionsoftheUpanishads,BrahmaSutrasandtheBhagavadGita,conscienceisthelabelgiventoattributescomposingknowledgeaboutgoodandevil,thatasoulacquiresfromthecompletionofactsandconsequentaccretionofkarmaovermanylifetimes.[9]AccordingtoAdiShankarainhisVivekachudamanimorallyrightaction(characterisedashumblyandcompassionatelyperformingtheprimarydutyofgoodtootherswithoutexpectationofmaterialorspiritualreward),helps"purifytheheart"andprovidementaltranquilitybutitalonedoesnotgiveus"directperceptionoftheReality".[10]Thisknowledgerequiresdiscriminationbetweentheeternalandnon-eternalandeventuallyarealizationincontemplationthatthetrueselfmergesinauniverseofpureconsciousness.[11] IntheZoroastrianfaith,afterdeathasoulmustfacejudgmentattheBridgeoftheSeparator;there,evilpeoplearetormentedbypriordenialoftheirownhighernature,orconscience,and"toalltimewilltheybeguestsfortheHouseoftheLie."[12]TheChineseconceptofRen,indicatesthatconscience,alongwithsocialetiquetteandcorrectrelationships,assisthumanstofollowTheWay(Tao)amodeoflifereflectingtheimplicithumancapacityforgoodnessandharmony.[13] MarcusAureliusbronzefragment,Louvre,Paris:"TomovefromoneunselfishactiontoanotherwithGodinmind.Onlythere,delightandstillness." ConsciencealsofeaturesprominentlyinBuddhism.[14]InthePaliscriptures,forexample,Buddhalinksthepositiveaspectofconsciencetoapureheartandacalm,well-directedmind.Itisregardedasaspiritualpower,andoneofthe"GuardiansoftheWorld".TheBuddhaalsoassociatedconsciencewithcompassionforthosewhomustendurecravingsandsufferingintheworlduntilrightconductculminatesinrightmindfulnessandrightcontemplation.[15]Santideva(685–763CE)wroteintheBodhicaryavatara(whichhecomposedanddeliveredinthegreatnorthernIndianBuddhistuniversityofNalanda)ofthespiritualimportanceofperfectingvirtuessuchasgenerosity,forbearanceandtrainingtheawarenesstobelikea"blockofwood"whenattractedbyvicessuchasprideorlust;soonecancontinueadvancingtowardsrightunderstandinginmeditativeabsorption.[16]ConsciencethusmanifestsinBuddhismasunselfishloveforalllivingbeingswhichgraduallyintensifiesandawakenstoapurerawareness[17]wherethemindwithdrawsfromsensoryinterestsandbecomesawareofitselfasasinglewhole.[18] TheRomanEmperorMarcusAureliuswroteinhisMeditationsthatconsciencewasthehumancapacitytolivebyrationalprinciplesthatwerecongruentwiththetrue,tranquilandharmoniousnatureofourmindandtherebythatoftheUniverse:"TomovefromoneunselfishactiontoanotherwithGodinmind.Onlythere,delightandstillness ...theonlyrewardsofourexistencehereareanunstainedcharacterandunselfishacts."[19] LastpageofGhazali'sautobiographyinMSIstanbul,ShehidAliPasha1712,datedA.H.509=1115–1116.Ghazali'scrisisofepistemologicalskepticismwasresolvedby"alightwhichGodMostHighcastintomybreast ...thekeytomostknowledge." TheIslamicconceptofTaqwaiscloselyrelatedtoconscience.IntheQur’ānverses2:197&22:37Taqwarefersto"rightconduct"or"piety","guardingofoneself"or"guardingagainstevil".[20]Qur’ānverse47:17saysthatGodistheultimatesourceofthebeliever'staqwāwhichisnotsimplytheproductofindividualwillbutrequiresinspirationfromGod.[21]InQur’ānverses91:7–8,GodtheAlmightytalksabouthowHehasperfectedthesoul,theconscienceandhastaughtitthewrong(fujūr)andright(taqwā).Hence,theawarenessofviceandvirtueisinherentinthesoul,allowingittobetestedfairlyinthelifeofthisworldandtried,heldaccountableonthedayofjudgmentforresponsibilitiestoGodandallhumans.[22] Qur’ānSura49.Surahal-Hujurat,49:13declares:"cometoknoweachother,thenoblestofyou,inthesightofGod,aretheonespossessingtaqwá". Qur’ānverse49:13states:"Ohumankind!Wehavecreatedyououtofmaleandfemaleandconstitutedyouintodifferentgroupsandsocieties,sothatyoumaycometoknoweachother-thenoblestofyou,inthesightofGod,aretheonespossessingtaqwā."InIslam,accordingtoeminenttheologianssuchasAl-Ghazali,althougheventsareordained(andwrittenbyGodinal-Lawhal-Mahfūz,thePreservedTablet),humanspossessfreewilltochoosebetweenwrongandright,andarethusresponsiblefortheiractions;theconsciencebeingadynamicpersonalconnectiontoGodenhancedbyknowledgeandpractiseoftheFivePillarsofIslam,deedsofpiety,repentance,self-disciplineandprayer;anddisintegratedandmetaphoricallycoveredinblacknessthroughsinfulacts.[23]MarshallHodgsonwrotethethree-volumework:TheVentureofIslam:ConscienceandHistoryinaWorldCivilization.[24] TheAwakeningConscience,HolmanHunt,1853 IntheProtestantChristiantradition,MartinLutherinsistedintheDietofWormsthathisconsciencewascaptivetotheWordofGod,anditwasneithersafenorrighttogoagainstconscience.ToLuther,consciencefallswithintheethical,ratherthanthereligious,sphere.[25]JohnCalvinsawconscienceasabattleground:"theenemieswhoriseupinourconscienceagainsthisKingdomandhinderhisdecreesprovethatGod'sthroneisnotfirmlyestablishedtherein".[26]ManyChristiansregardfollowingone'sconscienceasimportantas,orevenmoreimportantthan,obeyinghumanauthority.[27]AfundamentalistChristianviewofconsciencemightbe:"GodgaveusourconsciencesowewouldknowwhenwebreakHisLaw;theguiltwefeelwhenwedosomethingwrongtellsusthatweneedtorepent."[28]Thiscansometimes(aswiththeconflictbetweenWilliamTyndaleandThomasMoreoverthetranslationoftheBibleintoEnglish)leadtomoralquandaries:"DoIunreservedlyobeymyChurch/priest/military/politicalleaderordoIfollowmyowninnerfeelingofrightandwrongasinstructedbyprayerandapersonalreadingofscripture?"[29]SomecontemporaryChristianchurchesandreligiousgroupsholdthemoralteachingsoftheTenCommandmentsorofJesusasthehighestauthorityinanysituation,regardlessoftheextenttowhichitinvolvesresponsibilitiesinlaw.[30]IntheGospelofJohn(7:53–8:11)(KingJamesVersion)Jesuschallengesthoseaccusingawomanofadulterystating:"'Hethatiswithoutsinamongyou,lethimfirstcastastoneather.'Andagainhestoopeddown,andwroteontheground.Andtheywhichheardit,beingconvictedbytheirownconscience,wentoutonebyone"(seeJesusandthewomantakeninadultery).IntheGospelofLuke(10:25–37)JesustellsthestoryofhowadespisedandhereticalSamaritan(seeParableoftheGoodSamaritan)who(outofcompassionandconscience)helpsaninjuredstrangerbesidearoad,qualifiesbetterforeternallifebylovinghisneighbor,thanapriestwhopassesbyontheotherside.[31] NikiforosLytras,AntigoneinfrontofthedeadPolynices(1865),oiloncanvas,NationalGalleryofGreece-AlexandrosSoutzosMuseum. Thisdilemmaofobedienceinconsciencetodivineorstatelaw,wasdemonstrateddramaticallyinAntigone'sdefianceofKingCreon'sorderagainstburyingherbrotheranallegedtraitor,appealingtothe"unwrittenlaw"andtoa"longerallegiancetothedeadthantotheliving".[32] Catholictheologyseesconscienceasthelastpractical"judgmentofreasonwhichattheappropriatemomentenjoins[aperson]todogoodandtoavoidevil".[33]TheSecondVaticanCouncil(1962–65)describes:"Deepwithinhisconsciencemandiscoversalawwhichhehasnotlaiduponhimselfbutwhichhemustobey.Itsvoice,evercallinghimtoloveandtodowhatisgoodandtoavoidevil,tellshiminwardlyattherightmovement:dothis,shunthat.FormanhasinhisheartalawinscribedbyGod.Hisdignityliesinobservingthislaw,andbyithewillbejudged.Hisconscienceisman’smostsecretcore,andhissanctuary.ThereheisalonewithGodwhosevoiceechoesinhisdepths."[34]Thus,conscienceisnotlikethewill,norahabitlikeprudence,but"theinteriorspaceinwhichwecanlistentoandhearthetruth,thegood,thevoiceofGod.ItistheinnerplaceofourrelationshipwithHim,whospeakstoourheartandhelpsustodiscern,tounderstandthepathweoughttotake,andoncethedecisionismade,tomoveforward,toremainfaithful"[35]Intermsoflogic,consciencecanbeviewedasthepracticalconclusionofamoralsyllogismwhosemajorpremiseisanobjectivenormandwhoseminorpremiseisaparticularcaseorsituationtowhichthenormisapplied.Thus,Catholicsaretaughttocarefullyeducatethemselvesastorevealednormsandnormsderivedtherefrom,soastoformacorrectconscience.Catholicsarealsotoexaminetheirconsciencedailyandwithspecialcarebeforeconfession.Catholicteachingholdsthat,"Manhastherighttoactaccordingtohisconscienceandinfreedomsoaspersonallytomakemoraldecisions.Hemustnotbeforcedtoactcontrarytohisconscience.Normusthebepreventedfromactingaccordingtohisconscience,especiallyinreligiousmatters".[36]ThisrightofconsciencedoesnotallowonetoarbitrarilydisagreewithChurchteachingandclaimthatoneisactinginaccordancewithconscience.Asincereconsciencepresumesoneisdiligentlyseekingmoraltruthfromauthenticsources,thatis,seekingtoconformoneselftothatmoraltruthbylisteningtotheauthorityestablishedbyChristtoteachit.Nevertheless,despiteone'sbesteffort,"[i]tcanhappenthatmoralconscienceremainsinignoranceandmakeserroneousjudgmentsaboutactstobeperformedoralreadycommitted ...Thisignorancecanoftenbeimputedtopersonalresponsibility ...Insuchcases,thepersonisculpableforthewronghecommits."[37]Thus,ifonerealizesonemayhavemadeamistakenjudgment,one'sconscienceissaidtobevinciblyerroneousanditisnotavalidnormforaction.Onemustfirstremovethesourceoferroranddoone'sbesttoachieveacorrectjudgment.If,however,oneisnotawareofone'serrororif,despiteanhonestanddiligenteffortonecannotremovetheerrorbystudyorseekingadvice,thenone'sconsciencemaybesaidtobeinvinciblyerroneous.Itbindssinceonehassubjectivecertaintythatoneiscorrect.Theactresultingfromactingontheinvinciblyerroneousconscienceisnotgoodinitself,yetthisdeformedactormaterialsinagainstGod'srightorderandtheobjectivenormisnotimputedtotheperson.Theformalobediencegiventosuchajudgmentofconscienceisgood.SomeCatholicsappealtoconscienceinordertojustifydissent,notonthelevelofconscienceproperlyunderstood,butontheleveloftheprinciplesandnormswhicharesupposedtoinformconscience.Forexample,somepriestsmakeontheuseoftheso-calledinternalforumsolution(whichisnotsanctionedbytheMagisterium)tojustifyactionsorlifestylesincompatiblewithChurchteaching,suchasChrist'sprohibitionofremarriageafterdivorceorsexualactivityoutsidemarriage.[citationneeded]TheCatholicChurchhaswarnedthat"rejectionoftheChurch'sauthorityandherteaching ...canbeatthesourceoferrorsinjudgmentinmoralconduct".[38]AnexampleofsomeonefollowinghisconsciencetothepointofacceptingtheconsequenceofbeingcondemnedtodeathisSirThomasMore(1478-1535).[39]Atheologianwhowroteonthedistinctionbetweenthe'senseofduty'andthe'moralsense',astwoaspectsofconscience,andwhosawtheformerassomefeelingthatcanonlybeexplainedbyadivineLawgiver,wasJohnHenryCardinalNewman.[40]Awellknownsayingofhimisthathewouldfirsttoastonhisconscienceandonlythenonthepope,sincehisconsciencebroughthimtoacknowledgetheauthorityofthepope.[41] Judaismarguablydoesnotrequireuncompromisingobediencetoreligiousauthority;thecasehasbeenmadethatthroughoutJewishhistoryrabbishavecircumventedlawstheyfoundunconscionable,suchascapitalpunishment.[42]Similarly,althoughanoccupationwithnationaldestinyhasbeencentraltotheJewishfaith(seeZionism)manyscholars(includingMosesMendelssohn)statedthatconscienceasapersonalrevelationofscripturaltruthwasanimportantadjuncttotheTalmudictradition.[43][44]TheconceptofinnerlightintheReligiousSocietyofFriendsorQuakersisassociatedwithconscience.[3]FreemasonrydescribesitselfasprovidinganadjuncttoreligionandkeysymbolsfoundinaFreemasonLodgearethesquareandcompassesexplainedasprovidinglessonsthatMasonsshould"squaretheiractionsbythesquareofconscience",learnto"circumscribetheirdesiresandkeeptheirpassionswithindueboundstowardallmankind."[45]ThehistorianManningClarkviewedconscienceasoneofthecomfortersthatreligionplacedbetweenmananddeathbutalsoacrucialpartofthequestforgraceencouragedbytheBookofJobandtheBookofEcclesiastes,leadingustobeparadoxicallyclosesttothetruthwhenwesuspectthatwhatmattersmostinlife("beingtherewheneveryonesuddenlyunderstandswhatithasallbeenfor")canneverhappen.[46]LeoTolstoy,afteradecadestudyingtheissue(1877–1887),heldthattheonlypowercapableofresistingtheevilassociatedwithmaterialismandthedriveforsocialpowerofreligiousinstitutions,wasthecapacityofhumanstoreachanindividualspiritualtruththroughreasonandconscience.[47]Manyprominentreligiousworksaboutconsciencealsohaveasignificantphilosophicalcomponent:examplesaretheworksofAl-Ghazali,[48]Avicenna,[49]Aquinas,[50]JosephButler[51]andDietrichBonhoeffer[52](alldiscussedinthephilosophicalviewssection). Secular[edit] Furtherinformation:PsychologyandSociology IllustrationofFrançoisChifflart(1825–1901)forLaConscience(byVictorHugo) CharlesDarwinthoughtthatanyanimalendowedwithwell-markedsocialinstinctswouldinevitablyacquireamoralsenseorconscience,asitsintellectualpowersapproximatedman's. Thesecularapproachtoconscienceincludespsychological,physiological,sociological,humanitarian,andauthoritarianviews.[53]LawrenceKohlbergconsideredcriticalconsciencetobeanimportantpsychologicalstageinthepropermoraldevelopmentofhumans,associatedwiththecapacitytorationallyweighprinciplesofresponsibility,beingbestencouragedintheveryyoungbylinkagewithhumorouspersonifications(suchasJiminyCricket)andlaterinadolescentsbydebatesaboutindividuallypertinentmoraldilemmas.[54]ErikEriksonplacedthedevelopmentofconscienceinthe'pre-schooler'phaseofhiseightstagesofnormalhumanpersonalitydevelopment.[55]ThepsychologistMarthaStouttermsconscience"aninterveningsenseofobligationbasedinouremotionalattachments."[56]Thusagoodconscienceisassociatedwithfeelingsofintegrity,psychologicalwholenessandpeacefulnessandisoftendescribedusingadjectivessuchas"quiet","clear"and"easy".[57] SigmundFreudregardedconscienceasoriginatingpsychologicallyfromthegrowthofcivilisation,whichperiodicallyfrustratedtheexternalexpressionofaggression:thisdestructiveimpulsebeingforcedtoseekanalternative,healthyoutlet,directeditsenergyasasuperegoagainsttheperson'sown"ego"orselfishness(oftentakingitscueinthisregardfromparentsduringchildhood).[58]AccordingtoFreud,theconsequenceofnotobeyingourconscienceisguilt,whichcanbeafactorinthedevelopmentofneurosis;Freudclaimedthatboththeculturalandindividualsuper-egosetupstrictidealdemandswithregardtothemoralaspectsofcertaindecisions,disobediencetowhichprovokesa'fearofconscience'.[59] AntonioDamasioconsidersconscienceanaspectofextendedconsciousnessbeyondsurvival-relateddispositionsandincorporatingthesearchfortruthanddesiretobuildnormsandidealsforbehavior. [60] Conscienceasasociety-forminginstinct[edit] JeremyBentham:"Fanaticismneversleeps ...itisneverstoppedbyconscience;forithaspressedconscienceintoitsservice." MichelGlautierarguesthatconscienceisoneoftheinstinctsanddriveswhichenablepeopletoformsocieties:groupsofhumanswithoutthesedrivesorinwhomtheyareinsufficientcannotformsocietiesanddonotreproducetheirkindassuccessfullyasthosethatdo.[61] WarcriminalAdolfEichmanninpassportusedtoenterArgentina:hisconsciencespokewiththe"respectablevoice"oftheindoctrinatedwartimeGermansocietythatsurroundedhim. CharlesDarwinconsideredthatconscienceevolvedinhumanstoresolveconflictsbetweencompetingnaturalimpulses-someaboutself-preservationbutothersaboutsafetyofafamilyorcommunity;theclaimofconsciencetomoralauthorityemergedfromthe"greaterdurationofimpressionofsocialinstincts"inthestruggleforsurvival.[62]Insuchaview,behaviordestructivetoaperson'ssociety(eithertoitsstructuresortothepersonsitcomprises)isbador"evil".[63]Thus,consciencecanbeviewedasanoutcomeofthosebiologicaldrivesthatprompthumanstoavoidprovokingfearorcontemptinothers;beingexperiencedasguiltandshameindifferingwaysfromsocietytosocietyandpersontoperson.[64]Arequirementofconscienceinthisviewisthecapacitytoseeourselvesfromthepointofviewofanotherperson.[65]Personsunabletodothis(psychopaths,sociopaths,narcissists)thereforeoftenactinwayswhichare"evil".[66] Fundamentalinthisviewofconscienceisthathumansconsidersome"other"asbeinginasocialrelationship.Thus,nationalismisinvokedinconsciencetoquelltribalconflictandthenotionofaBrotherhoodofManisinvokedtoquellnationalconflicts.Yetsuchcrowddrivesmaynotonlyoverwhelmbutredefineindividualconscience.FriedrichNietzschestated:"communalsolidarityisannihilatedbythehighestandstrongestdrivesthat,whentheybreakoutpassionately,whiptheindividualfarpasttheaveragelowlevelofthe'herd-conscience.'"[67]JeremyBenthamnotedthat:"fanaticismneversleeps ...itisneverstoppedbyconscience;forithaspressedconscienceintoitsservice."[68]HannahArendtinherstudyofthetrialofAdolfEichmanninJerusalem,notesthattheaccused,aswithalmostallhisfellowGermans,hadlosttrackofhisconsciencetothepointwheretheyhardlyrememberedit;thiswasn'tcausedbyfamiliaritywithatrocitiesorbypsychologicallyredirectinganyresultantnaturalpitytothemselvesforhavingtobearsuchanunpleasantduty,somuchasbythefactthatanyonewhoseconsciencediddevelopdoubtscouldseenoonewhosharedthem:"Eichmanndidnotneedtoclosehisearstothevoiceofconscience ...notbecausehehadnone,butbecausehisconsciencespokewitha"respectablevoice",withthevoiceoftherespectablesocietyaroundhim".[69] SirArthurKeithin1948developedtheAmity-enmitycomplex.Weevolvedastribalgroupssurroundedbyenemies;thusconscienceevolvedadualrole;thedutytosaveandprotectmembersofthein-group,andthedutytoshowhatredandaggressiontowardsanyout-group. Aninterestingareaofresearchinthiscontextconcernsthesimilaritiesbetweenourrelationshipsandthoseofanimals,whetheranimalsinhumansociety(pets,workinganimals,evenanimalsgrownforfood)orinthewild.[70]Oneideaisthataspeopleoranimalsperceiveasocialrelationshipasimportanttopreserve,theirconsciencebeginstorespectthatformer"other",andurgeactionsthatprotectit.[71][72]Similarly,incomplexterritorialandcooperativebreedingbirdcommunities(suchastheAustralianmagpie)thathaveahighdegreeofetiquettes,rules,hierarchies,play,songsandnegotiations,rule-breakingseemstoleratedonoccasionsnotobviouslyrelatedtosurvivaloftheindividualorgroup;behaviouroftenappearingtoexhibitatouchinggentlenessandtenderness.[73] Evolutionarybiology[edit] Contemporaryscientistsinevolutionarybiologyseektoexplainconscienceasafunctionofthebrainthatevolvedtofacilitatealtruismwithinsocieties.[74]InhisbookTheGodDelusion,RichardDawkinsstatesthatheagreeswithRobertHinde'sWhyGoodisGood,MichaelShermer'sTheScienceofGoodandEvil,RobertBuckman'sCanWeBeGoodWithoutGod?andMarcHauser'sMoralMinds,thatoursenseofrightandwrongcanbederivedfromourDarwinianpast.Hesubsequentlyreinforcedthisideathroughthelensofthegene-centeredviewofevolution,sincetheunitofnaturalselectionisneitheranindividualorganismnoragroup,butratherthe"selfish"gene,andthesegenescouldensuretheirown"selfish"survivalby,interalia,pushingindividualstoactaltruisticallytowardsitskin.[75] Neuroscienceandartificialconscience[edit] Numerouscasestudiesofbraindamagehaveshownthatdamagetoareasofthebrain(suchastheanteriorprefrontalcortex)resultsinthereductionoreliminationofinhibitions,withacorrespondingradicalchangeinbehaviour.[76]Whenthedamageoccurstoadults,theymaystillbeabletoperformmoralreasoning;butwhenitoccurstochildren,theymayneverdevelopthatability.[77][78] Attemptshavebeenmadebyneuroscientiststolocatethefreewillnecessaryforwhatistermedthe'veto'ofconscienceoverunconsciousmentalprocesses(seeNeuroscienceoffreewillandBenjaminLibet)inascientificallymeasurableawarenessofanintentiontocarryoutanactoccurring350–400microsecondsaftertheelectricaldischargeknownasthe'readinesspotential.'[79][80][81] JacquesPitratclaimsthatsomekindofartificialconscienceisbeneficialinartificialintelligencesystemstoimprovetheirlong-termperformanceanddirecttheirintrospectiveprocessing.[82] Philosophical[edit] Furtherinformation:Freewill,Compatibilismandincompatibilism,Determinism,Libertarianism(metaphysics),Theoryofjustification,Virtueethics,Metaethics,Moralmotivation,andNormativeethics Theword"conscience"derivesetymologicallyfromtheLatinconscientia,meaning"privityofknowledge"[83] or"with-knowledge".TheEnglishwordimpliesinternalawarenessofamoralstandardinthemindconcerningthequalityofone'smotives,aswellasaconsciousnessofourownactions.[84]Thusconscienceconsideredphilosophicallymaybefirst,andperhapsmostcommonly,alargelyunexamined"gutfeeling"or"vaguesenseofguilt"aboutwhatoughttobeorshouldhavebeendone.Conscienceinthissenseisnotnecessarilytheproductofaprocessofrationalconsiderationofthemoralfeaturesofasituation(ortheapplicablenormativeprinciples,rulesorlaws)andcanarisefromparental,peergroup,religious,stateorcorporateindoctrination,whichmayormaynotbepresentlyconsciouslyacceptabletotheperson("traditionalconscience").[85]Consciencemaybedefinedasthepracticalreasonemployedwhenapplyingmoralconvictionstoasituation("criticalconscience").[86]Inpurportedlymorallymaturemysticalpeoplewhohavedevelopedthiscapacitythroughdailycontemplationormeditationcombinedwithselflessservicetoothers,criticalconsciencecanbeaidedbya"spark"ofintuitiveinsightorrevelation(calledmarifainIslamicSufiphilosophyandsynderesisinmedievalChristianscholasticmoralphilosophy).[87][88]Conscienceisaccompaniedineachcasebyaninternalawarenessof'innerlight'andapprobationor'innerdarkness'andcondemnationaswellasaresultingconvictionofrightordutyeitherfollowedordeclined.[89] Medieval[edit] ThemedievalIslamicscholarandmysticAl-GhazalidividedtheconceptofNafs(soulorself(spirituality))intothreecategories[48]basedontheQur’an: NafsAmmarah(12:53)which"exhortsonetofreelyindulgeingratifyingpassionsandinstigatestodoevil" NafsLawammah(75:2)whichis"theconsciencethatdirectsmantowardsrightorwrong" NafsMutmainnah(89:27)whichis"aselfthatreachestheultimatepeace" ThemedievalPersianphilosopherandphysicianMuhammadibnZakariyaal-Razibelievedinacloserelationshipbetweenconscienceorspiritualintegrityandphysicalhealth;ratherthanbeingself-indulgent,manshouldpursueknowledge,usehisintellectandapplyjusticeinhislife.[90]ThemedievalIslamicphilosopherAvicenna,whilstimprisonedinthecastleofFardajannearHamadhan,wrotehisfamousisolated-but-awake"FloatingMan"sensorydeprivationthoughtexperimenttoexploretheideasofhumanself-awarenessandthesubstantialityofthesoul;hishypothesisbeingthatitisthroughintelligence,particularlytheactiveintellect,thatGodcommunicatestruthtothehumanmindorconscience.[49]AccordingtotheIslamicSufisconscienceallowsAllahtoguidepeopletothemarifa,thepeaceor"lightuponlight"experiencedwhereaMuslim'sprayersleadtoameltingawayoftheselfintheinnerknowledgeofGod;thisforeshadowingtheeternalParadisedepictedintheQur’ān.[91] TheFlemishmysticJanvanRuysbroeckviewedapureconscienceasfacilitating"anoutflowinglosingofoneselfintheabyssofthateternalobjectwhichisthehighestandchiefblessedness" SomemedievalChristianscholasticssuchasBonaventuremadeadistinctionbetweenconscienceasarationalfacultyofthemind(practicalreason)andinnerawareness,anintuitive"spark"todogood,calledsynderesisarisingfromaremnantappreciationofabsolutegoodandwhenconsciouslydenied(forexampletoperformanevilact),becomingasourceofinnertorment.[88]EarlymoderntheologianssuchasWilliamPerkinsandWilliamAmesdevelopedasyllogisticunderstandingoftheconscience,whereGod'slawmadethefirstterm,theacttobejudgedthesecondandtheactionoftheconscience(asarationalfaculty)producedthejudgement.Bydebatingtestcasesapplyingsuchunderstandingconsciencewastrainedandrefined(i.e.casuistry).[92] ThemedievalPersianphilosopherIbnSina(Avicenna)developedasensorydeprivationthoughtexperimenttoexploretherelationshipbetweenconscienceandGod Inthe13thcentury,St.ThomasAquinasregardedconscienceastheapplicationofmoralknowledgetoaparticularcase(S.T.I,q.79,a.13).Thus,consciencewasconsideredanactorjudgmentofpracticalreasonthatbeganwithsynderesis,thestructureddevelopmentofourinnateremnantawarenessofabsolutegood(whichhecategorisedasinvolvingthefiveprimarypreceptsproposedinhistheoryofNaturalLaw)intoanacquiredhabitofapplyingmoralprinciples.[50]AccordingtoSinger,Aquinasheldthatconscience,orconscientiawasanimperfectprocessofjudgmentappliedtoactivitybecauseknowledgeofthenaturallaw(andallactsofnaturalvirtueimplicittherein)wasobscuredinmostpeoplebyeducationandcustomthatpromotedselfishnessratherthanfellow-feeling(SummaTheologiae,I–II,I).[93]Aquinasalsodiscussedconscienceinrelationtothevirtueofprudencetoexplainwhysomepeopleappeartobeless"morallyenlightened"thanothers,theirweakwillbeingincapableofadequatelybalancingtheirownneedswiththoseofothers.[94] Aquinasreasonedthatactingcontrarytoconscienceisanevilactionbutanerrantconscienceisonlyblameworthyifitistheresultofculpableorvincibleignoranceoffactorsthatonehasadutytohaveknowledgeof.[93]Aquinasalsoarguedthatconscienceshouldbeeducatedtoacttowardsrealgoods(fromGod)whichencouragedhumanflourishing,ratherthantheapparentgoodsofsensorypleasures.[93]InhisCommentaryonAristotle'sNicomacheanEthicsAquinasclaimeditwasweakwillthatallowedanon-virtuousmantochooseaprincipleallowingpleasureaheadofonerequiringmoralconstraint.[95] ThomasAKempisinthemedievalcontemplativeclassicTheImitationofChrist(ca1418)statedthatthegloryofagoodmanisthewitnessofagoodconscience."Preserveaquietconscienceandyouwillalwayshavejoy.Aquietconsciencecanenduremuch,andremainsjoyfulinalltrouble,butanevilconscienceisalwaysfearfulanduneasy."[96]TheanonymousmedievalauthoroftheChristianmysticalworkTheCloudofUnknowingsimilarlyexpressedtheviewthatinprofoundandprolongedcontemplationasouldriesupthe"rootandground"ofthesinthatisalwaysthere,evenafterone'sconfessionandhoweverbusyoneisinholythings:"therefore,whoeverwouldworkatbecomingacontemplativemustfirstcleansehis[orher]conscience."[97]ThemedievalFlemishmysticJohnofRuysbroecklikewiseheldthattrueconsciencehasfouraspectsthatarenecessarytorenderamanjustintheactiveandcontemplativelife:"afreespirit,attractingitselfthroughlove";"anintellectenlightenedbygrace","adelightyieldingpropensionorinclination"and"anoutflowinglosingofoneselfintheabyssof ...thateternalobjectwhichisthehighestandchiefblessedness ...thoseloftyamongstmen,areabsorbedinit,andimmersedinacertainboundlessthing."[98] Modern[edit] Schopenhauerconsideredthatthegoodconscienceweexperienceafteranunselfishactverifiesthatourtrueselfexistsoutsideourphysicalperson BenedictdeSpinoza:moralproblemsandouremotionalresponsestothemshouldbereasonedfromtheperspectiveofeternity. ImmanuelKant:themorallawwithinushastrueinfinity. BenedictdeSpinozainhisEthics,publishedafterhisdeathin1677,arguedthatmostpeople,eventhosethatconsiderthemselvestoexercisefreewill,makemoraldecisionsonthebasisofimperfectsensoryinformation,inadequateunderstandingoftheirmindandwill,aswellasemotionswhicharebothoutcomesoftheircontingentphysicalexistenceandformsofthoughtdefectivefrombeingchieflyimpelledbyself-preservation.[99]Thesolution,accordingtoSpinoza,wastograduallyincreasethecapacityofourreasontochangetheformsofthoughtproducedbyemotionsandtofallinlovewithviewingproblemsrequiringmoraldecisionfromtheperspectiveofeternity.[100]Thus,livingalifeofpeacefulconsciencemeanstoSpinozathatreasonisusedtogenerateadequateideaswherethemindincreasinglyseestheworldanditsconflicts,ourdesiresandpassionssubspecieaeternitatis,thatiswithoutreferencetotime.[101]Hegel'sobscureandmysticalPhilosophyofMindheldthattheabsoluterightoffreedomofconsciencefacilitateshumanunderstandingofanall-embracingunity,anabsolutewhichwasrational,realandtrue.[102]Nevertheless,HegelthoughtthatafunctioningStatewouldalwaysbetemptednottorecognizeconscienceinitsformofsubjectiveknowledge,justassimilarnon-objectiveopinionsaregenerallyrejectedinscience.[103]AsimilaridealistnotionwasexpressedinthewritingsofJosephButlerwhoarguedthatconscienceisGod-given,shouldalwaysbeobeyed,isintuitive,andshouldbeconsideredthe"constitutionalmonarch"andthe"universalmoralfaculty":"consciencedoesnotonlyofferitselftoshowusthewayweshouldwalkin,butitlikewisecarriesitsownauthoritywithit."[104]Butleradvancedethicalspeculationbyreferringtoadualityofregulativeprinciplesinhumannature:first,"self-love"(seekingindividualhappiness)andsecond,"benevolence"(compassionandseekinggoodforanother)inconscience(alsolinkedtotheagapeofsituationalethics).[51]Consciencetendedtobemoreauthoritativeinquestionsofmoraljudgment,thoughtButler,becauseitwasmorelikelytobeclearandcertain(whereascalculationsofself-interesttendedtoprobableandchangingconclusions).[105]JohnSeldeninhisTableTalkexpressedtheviewthatanawakebutexcessivelyscrupulousorill-trainedconsciencecouldhinderresolveandpracticalaction;itbeing"likeahorsethatisnotwellwayed,hestartsateverybirdthatfliesoutofthehedge".[106] AsthesacredtextsofancientHinduandBuddhistphilosophybecameavailableinGermantranslationsinthe18thand19thcenturies,theyinfluencedphilosopherssuchasSchopenhauertoholdthatinahealthymindonlydeedsoppressourconscience,notwishesandthoughts;"foritisonlyourdeedsthatholdusuptothemirrorofourwill";thegoodconscience,thoughtSchopenhauer,weexperienceaftereverydisinteresteddeedarisesfromdirectrecognitionofourowninnerbeinginthephenomenonofanother,itaffordsustheverification"thatourtrueselfexistsnotonlyinourownperson,thisparticularmanifestation,butineverythingthatlives.Bythistheheartfeelsitselfenlarged,asbyegotismitiscontracted."[107] ImmanuelKant,acentralfigureoftheAgeofEnlightenment,likewiseclaimedthattwothingsfilledhismindwithevernewandincreasingadmirationandawe,theoftenerandmoresteadilytheywerereflectedon:"thestarryheavensabovemeandthemorallawwithinme ...thelatterbeginsfrommyinvisibleself,mypersonality,andexhibitsmeinaworldwhichhastrueinfinitybutwhichIrecognisemyselfasexistinginauniversalandnecessary(andnotonly,asinthefirstcase,contingent)connection."[108]The'universalconnection'referredtohereisKant'scategoricalimperative:"actonlyaccordingtothatmaximbywhichyoucanatthesametimewillthatitshouldbecomeauniversallaw."[109]Kantconsideredcriticalconsciencetobeaninternalcourtinwhichourthoughtsaccuseorexcuseoneanother;heacknowledgedthatmorallymaturepeopledooftendescribecontentmentorpeaceinthesoulafterfollowingconsciencetoperformaduty,butarguedthatforsuchactstoproducevirtuetheirprimarymotivationshouldsimplybeduty,notexpectationofanysuchbliss.[110]Rousseauexpressedasimilarviewthatconsciencesomehowconnectedmantoagreatermetaphysicalunity.JohnPlamenatzinhiscriticalexaminationofRousseau'sworkconsideredthatconsciencewastheredefinedasthefeelingthaturgesus,inspiteofcontrarypassions,towardstwoharmonies:theonewithinourmindsandbetweenourpassions,andtheotherwithinsocietyandbetweenitsmembers;"theweakestcanappealtoitinthestrongest,andtheappeal,thoughoftenunsuccessful,isalwaysdisturbing.However,corruptedbypowerorwealthwemaybe,eitheraspossessorsofthemorasvictims,thereissomethinginusservingtoremindusthatthiscorruptionisagainstnature."[111] JohnLockeviewedthewidespreadsocialfactofconscienceasajustificationfornaturalrights. AdamSmith:conscienceshowswhatrelatestoourselvesinitspropershapeanddimensions SamuelJohnson(1775)statedthat"Noman'sconsciencecantellhimtherightofanotherman." Otherphilosophersexpressedamorescepticalandpragmaticviewoftheoperationof"conscience"insociety.[112] JohnLockeinhisEssaysontheLawofNaturearguedthatthewidespreadfactofhumanconscienceallowedaphilosophertoinferthenecessaryexistenceofobjectivemorallawsthatoccasionallymightcontradictthoseofthestate.[113]Lockehighlightedthemetaethicsproblemofwhetheracceptingastatementlike"followyourconscience"supportssubjectivistorobjectivistconceptionsofconscienceasaguideinconcretemorality,orasaspontaneousrevelationofeternalandimmutableprinciplestotheindividual:"ifconsciencebeaproofofinnateprinciples,contrariesmaybeinnateprinciples;sincesomemenwiththesamebentofconscienceprosecutewhatothersavoid."[114]ThomasHobbeslikewisepragmaticallynotedthatopinionsformedonthebasisofconsciencewithfullandhonestconviction,neverthelessshouldalwaysbeacceptedwithhumilityaspotentiallyerroneousandnotnecessarilyindicatingabsoluteknowledgeortruth.[115]WilliamGodwinexpressedtheviewthatconsciencewasamemorableconsequenceofthe"perceptionbymenofeverycreedwhenthedescendintothesceneofbusylife"thattheypossessfreewill.[116]AdamSmithconsideredthatitwasonlybydevelopingacriticalconsciencethatwecaneverseewhatrelatestoourselvesinitspropershapeanddimensions;orthatwecanevermakeanypropercomparisonbetweenourowninterestsandthoseofotherpeople.[117]JohnStuartMillbelievedthatidealismabouttheroleofconscienceingovernmentshouldbetemperedwithapracticalrealisationthatfewmeninsocietyarecapableofdirectingtheirmindsorpurposestowardsdistantorunobviousinterests,ofdisinterestedregardforothers,andespeciallyforwhatcomesafterthem,fortheideaofposterity,oftheircountry,orofhumanity,whethergroundedonsympathyoronaconscientiousfeeling.[118]Millheldthatcertainamountofconscience,andofdisinterestedpublicspirit,mayfairlybecalculatedoninthecitizensofanycommunityripeforrepresentativegovernment,butthat"itwouldberidiculoustoexpectsuchadegreeofit,combinedwithsuchintellectualdiscernment,aswouldbeproofagainstanyplausiblefallacytendingtomakethatwhichwasfortheirclassinterestappearthedictateofjusticeandofthegeneralgood."[118] JosiahRoyce(1855–1916)builtonthetranscendentalidealismviewofconscience,viewingitastheidealoflifewhichconstitutesourmoralpersonality,ourplanofbeingourself,ofmakingcommonsenseethicaldecisions.But,hethought,thiswasonlytrueinsofarasourconsciencealsorequiredloyaltyto"amysterioushigherordeeperself".[119] InthemodernChristiantraditionthisapproachachievedexpressionwithDietrichBonhoefferwhostatedduringhisimprisonmentbytheNazisinWorldWarIIthatconscienceforhimwasmorethanpracticalreason,indeeditcamefroma"depthwhichliesbeyondaman'sownwillandhisownreasonanditmakesitselfheardasthecallofhumanexistencetounitywithitself."[120]ForBonhoefferaguiltyconsciencearoseasanindictmentofthelossofthisunityandasawarningagainstthelossofone'sself;primarily,hethought,itisdirectednottowardsaparticularkindofdoingbuttowardsaparticularmodeofbeing.Itprotestsagainstadoingwhichimperilstheunityofthisbeingwithitself.[52]ConscienceforBonhoefferdidnot,likeshame,embraceorpassjudgmentonthemoralityofthewholeofitsowner'slife;itreactedonlytocertaindefiniteactions:"itrecallswhatislongpastandrepresentsthisdisunionassomethingwhichisalreadyaccomplishedandirreparable".[121]Themanwithaconscience,hebelieved,fightsalonelybattleagainstthe"overwhelmingforcesofinescapablesituations"whichdemandmoraldecisionsdespitethelikelihoodofadverseconsequences.[121]SimonSoloveychikhassimilarlyclaimedthatthetruthdistributedintheworld,asthestatementabouthumandignity,astheaffirmationofthelinebetweengoodandevil,livesinpeopleasconscience.[122] DietrichBonhoeffer(1932) AsHannahArendtpointedout,however,(followingtheutilitarianJohnStuartMillonthispoint):abadconsciencedoesnotnecessarilysignifyabadcharacter;infactonlythosewhoaffirmacommitmenttoapplyingmoralstandardswillbetroubledwithremorse,guiltorshamebyabadconscienceandtheirneedtoregainintegrityandwholenessoftheself.[123][124]Representingoursoulortrueselfbyanalogyasourhouse,Arendtwrotethat"conscienceistheanticipationofthefellowwhoawaitsyouifandwhenyoucomehome."[125]Arendtbelievedthatpeoplewhoareunfamiliarwiththeprocessofsilentcriticalreflectionaboutwhattheysayanddowillnotmindcontradictingthemselvesbyanimmoralactorcrime,sincetheycan"countonitsbeingforgottenthenextmoment;"badpeoplearenotfullofregrets.[125]Arendtalsowroteeloquentlyontheproblemoflanguagesdistinguishingthewordconsciousnessfromconscience.Onereason,sheheld,wasthatconscience,asweunderstanditinmoralorlegalmatters,issupposedlyalwayspresentwithinus,justlikeconsciousness:"andthisconscienceisalsosupposedtotelluswhattodoandwhattorepent;beforeitbecamethelumennaturaleorKant'spracticalreason,itwasthevoiceofGod."[126] AlbertEinsteinassociatedconsciencewithsuprapersonalthoughts,feelingsandaspirations. AlbertEinstein,asaself-professedadherentofhumanismandrationalism,likewiseviewedanenlightenedreligiouspersonasonewhoseconsciencereflectsthathe"has,tothebestofhisability,liberatedhimselffromthefettersofhisselfishdesiresandispreoccupiedwiththoughts,feelingsandaspirationstowhichheclingsbecauseoftheirsuper-personalvalue."[127] Einsteinoftenreferredtothe"innervoice"asasourceofbothmoralandphysicalknowledge:"Quantummechanicsisveryimpressive.Butaninnervoicetellsmethatitisnottherealthing.ThetheoryproducesagooddealbuthardlybringsoneclosertothesecretsoftheOldOne.IamatalleventsconvincedthatHedoesnotplaydice."[128] SimoneWeilwhofoughtfortheFrenchresistance(theMaquis)arguedinherfinalbookTheNeedforRoots:PreludetoaDeclarationofDutiesTowardsMankindthatforsocietytobecomemorejustandprotectiveofliberty,obligationsshouldtakeprecedenceoverrightsinmoralandpoliticalphilosophyandaspiritualawakeningshouldoccurintheconscienceofmostcitizens,sothatsocialobligationsareviewedasfundamentallyhavingatranscendentoriginandabeneficentimpactonhumancharacterwhenfulfilled.[129][130]SimoneWeilalsointhatworkprovidedapsychologicalexplanationforthementalpeaceassociatedwithagoodconscience:"thelibertyofmenofgoodwill,thoughlimitedinthesphereofaction,iscompleteinthatofconscience.For,havingincorporatedtherulesintotheirownbeing,theprohibitedpossibilitiesnolongerpresentthemselvestothemind,andhavenottoberejected."[131] AlternativestosuchmetaphysicalandidealistopinionsaboutconsciencearosefromrealistandmaterialistperspectivessuchasthoseofCharlesDarwin.Darwinsuggestedthat"anyanimalwhatever,endowedwithwell-markedsocialinstincts,theparentalandfilialaffectionsbeinghereincluded,wouldinevitablyacquireamoralsenseorconscience,assoonasitsintellectualpowershadbecomeaswell,orasnearlyaswelldeveloped,asinman."[132]ÉmileDurkheimheldthatthesoulandconsciencewereparticularformsofanimpersonalprinciplediffusedintherelevantgroupandcommunicatedbytotemicceremonies.[133]AJAyerwasamorerecentrealistwhoheldthattheexistenceofconsciencewasanempiricalquestiontobeansweredbysociologicalresearchintothemoralhabitsofagivenpersonorgroupofpeople,andwhatcausesthemtohavepreciselythosehabitsandfeelings.Suchaninquiry,hebelieved,fellwhollywithinthescopeoftheexistingsocialsciences.[134]GeorgeEdwardMoorebridgedtheidealisticandsociologicalviewsof'critical'and'traditional'conscienceinstatingthattheideaofabstract'rightness'andthevariousdegreesofthespecificemotionexcitedbyitarewhatconstitute,formanypersons,thespecifically'moralsentiment'orconscience.Forothers,however,anactionseemstobeproperlytermed'internallyright',merelybecausetheyhavepreviouslyregardeditasright,theideaof'rightness'beingpresentinsomewaytohisorhermind,butnotnecessarilyamonghisorherdeliberatelyconstructedmotives.[135] TheFrenchphilosopherSimonedeBeauvoirinAVeryEasyDeath(Unemorttrèsdouce,1964)reflectswithinherownconscienceabouthermother'sattemptstodevelopsuchamoralsympathyandunderstandingofothers.[136] "Thesightofhertearsgrievedme;butIsoonrealisedthatshewasweepingoverherfailure,withoutcaringaboutwhatwashappeninginsideme ...Wemightstillhavecometoanunderstandingif,insteadofaskingeverybodytoprayformysoul,shehadgivenmealittleconfidenceandsympathy.Iknownowwhatpreventedherfromdoingso:shehadtoomuchtopayback,toomanywoundstosalve,toputherselfinanother'splace.Inactualdoingshemadeeverysacrifice,butherfeelingsdidnottakeheroutofherself.Besides,howcouldshehavetriedtounderstandmesincesheavoidedlookingintoherownheart?Asfordiscoveringanattitudethatwouldnothavesetusapart,nothinginherlifehadeverpreparedherforsuchathing:theunexpectedsentherintoapanic,becauseshehadbeentaughtnevertothink,actorfeelexceptinaready-madeframework." —SimonedeBeauvoir.AVeryEasyDeath.PenguinBooks.London.1982.p.60. MichaelWalzerclaimedthatthegrowthofreligioustolerationinWesternnationsaroseamongstotherthings,fromthegeneralrecognitionthatprivateconsciencesignifiedsomeinnerdivinepresenceregardlessofthereligiousfaithprofessedandfromthegeneralrespectability,piety,self-limitation,andsectariandisciplinewhichmarkedmostofthemenwhoclaimedtherightsofconscience.[137]Walzeralsoarguedthatattemptsbycourtstodefineconscienceasamerelypersonalmoralcodeorassincerebelief,riskedencouragingananarchyofmoralegotisms,unlesssuchacodeandmotivewasnecessarilytemperedwithsharedmoralknowledge:derivedeitherfromtheconnectionoftheindividualtoauniversalspiritualorder,orfromthecommonprinciplesandmutualengagementsofunselfishpeople.[138]RonaldDworkinmaintainsthatconstitutionalprotectionoffreedomofconscienceiscentraltodemocracybutcreatespersonaldutiestoliveuptoit:"Freedomofconsciencepresupposesapersonalresponsibilityofreflection,anditlosesmuchofitsmeaningwhenthatresponsibilityisignored.Agoodlifeneednotbeanespeciallyreflectiveone;mostofthebestlivesarejustlivedratherthanstudied.Buttherearemomentsthatcryoutforself-assertion,whenapassivebowingtofateoramechanicaldecisionoutofdeferenceorconvenienceistreachery,becauseitforfeitsdignityforease."[139]EdwardConzestateditisimportantforindividualandcollectivemoralgrowththatwerecognisetheillusionofourconsciencebeingwhollylocatedinourbody;indeedbothourconscienceandwisdomexpandwhenweactinanunselfishwayandconversely"repressedcompassionresultsinanunconscioussenseofguilt."[140] PeterSinger:distinguishedbetweenimmature"traditional"andhighlyreasoned"critical"conscience ThephilosopherPeterSingerconsidersthatusuallywhenwedescribeanactionasconscientiousinthecriticalsensewedosoinordertodenyeitherthattherelevantagentwasmotivatedbyselfishdesires,likegreedorambition,orthatheactedonwhimorimpulse.[141] Moralanti-realistsdebatewhetherthemoralfactsnecessarytoactivateconsciencesuperveneonnaturalfactswithaposteriorinecessity;orariseaprioribecausemoralfactshaveaprimaryintensionandnaturallyidenticalworldsmaybepresumedmorallyidentical.[142]Ithasalsobeenarguedthatthereisameasureofmoralluckinhowcircumstancescreatetheobstacleswhichconsciencemustovercometoapplymoralprinciplesorhumanrightsandthatwiththebenefitofenforceablepropertyrightsandtheruleoflaw,accesstouniversalhealthcareplustheabsenceofhighadultandinfantmortalityfromconditionssuchasmalaria,tuberculosis,HIV/AIDSandfamine,peopleinrelativelyprosperousdevelopedcountrieshavebeensparedpangsofconscienceassociatedwiththephysicalnecessitytostealscrapsoffood,bribetaxinspectorsorpoliceofficers,andcommitmurderinguerrillawarsagainstcorruptgovernmentforcesorrebelarmies.[143]RogerScrutonhasclaimedthattrueunderstandingofconscienceanditsrelationshipwithmoralityhasbeenhamperedbyan"impetuous"beliefthatphilosophicalquestionsaresolvedthroughtheanalysisoflanguageinanareawhereclaritythreatensvestedinterests.[144]SusanSontagsimilarlyarguedthatitwasasymptomofpsychologicalimmaturitynottorecognisethatmanymorallyimmaturepeoplewillinglyexperienceaformofdelight,insomeaneroticbreakingoftaboo,whenwitnessingviolence,sufferingandpainbeinginflictedonothers.[145]JonathanGloverwrotethatmostofus"donotspendourlivesonendlesslandscapegardeningofourself"andourconscienceislikelyshapednotsomuchbyheroicstruggles,asbychoiceofpartner,friendsandjob,aswellaswherewechoosetolive.[146]GarrettHardin,inafamousarticlecalled"TheTragedyoftheCommons",arguesthatanyinstanceinwhichsocietyappealstoanindividualexploitingacommonstorestrainhimselforherselfforthegeneralgood—bymeansofhisorherconscience—merelysetsupasystemwhich,byselectivelydivertingsocietalpowerandphysicalresourcestothoselackinginconscience,whilefosteringguilt(includinganxietyabouthisorherindividualcontributiontoover-population)inpeopleactinguponit,actuallyworkstowardtheeliminationofconsciencefromtherace.[147][148] JohnRalstonSaul:consumersriskturningovertheirconsciencetotechnicalexpertsandtotheideologyoffreemarkets JohnRalstonSaulexpressedtheviewinTheUnconsciousCivilizationthatincontemporarydevelopednationsmanypeoplehaveacquiescedinturningovertheirsenseofrightandwrong,theircriticalconscience,totechnicalexperts;willinglyrestrictingtheirmoralfreedomofchoicetolimitedconsumeractionsruledbytheideologyofthefreemarket,whilecitizenparticipationinpublicaffairsislimitedtotheisolatedactofvotingandprivate-interestlobbyingturnsevenelectedrepresentativesagainstthepublicinterest.[149] Someargueonreligiousorphilosophicalgroundsthatitisblameworthytoactagainstconscience,evenifthejudgementofconscienceislikelytobeerroneous(saybecauseitisinadequatelyinformedaboutthefacts,orprevailingmoral(humanistorreligious),professionalethical,legalandhumanrightsnorms).[150]Failuretoacknowledgeandacceptthatconscientiousjudgementscanbeseriouslymistaken,mayonlypromotesituationswhereone'sconscienceismanipulatedbyotherstoprovideunwarrantedjustificationsfornon-virtuousandselfishacts;indeed,insofarasitisappealedtoasglorifyingideologicalcontent,andanassociatedextremelevelofdevotion,withoutadequateconstraintofexternal,altruistic,normativejustification,consciencemaybeconsideredmorallyblindanddangerousbothtotheindividualconcernedandhumanityasawhole.[151]Langstonarguesthatphilosophersofvirtueethicshaveunnecessarilyneglectedconsciencefor,onceconscienceistrainedsothattheprinciplesandrulesitappliesarethoseonewouldwantallotherstoliveby,itspractisecultivatesandsustainsthevirtues;indeed,amongstpeopleinwhateachsocietyconsiderstobethehigheststateofmoraldevelopmentthereislittledisagreementabouthowtoact.[8]EmmanuelLevinasviewedconscienceasarevelatoryencounteringofresistancetoourselfishpowers,developingmoralitybycallingintoquestionournaivesenseoffreedomofwilltousesuchpowersarbitrarily,orwithviolence,thisprocessbeingmoreseverethemorerigorouslythegoalofourselfwastoobtaincontrol.[152] Inotherwords,thewelcomingoftheOther,toLevinas,wastheveryessenceofconscienceproperlyconceived;itencouragedouregotoacceptthefallibilityofassumingthingsaboutotherpeople,thatselfishfreedomofwill"doesnothavethelastword"andthatrealisingthishasatranscendentpurpose:"Iamnotalone ...inconscienceIhaveanexperiencethatisnotcommensuratewithanyapriori[seeaprioriandaposteriori]framework-aconceptlessexperience."[152] Conscientiousactsandthelaw[edit] Furtherinformation:Conscientiousobjector,Civildisobedience,Naturallaw,Naturalrights,Nonviolence,Nonviolentresistance,Protest,Prisonerofconscience,andKeeperoftheKing'sConscience LesterOtt,conscientiousobjectorduringtheFirstWorldWar Englishhumanistlawyersinthe16thand17thcenturiesinterpretedconscienceasacollectionofuniversalprinciplesgiventomanbygodatcreationtobeappliedbyreason;thisgraduallyreformingthemedievalRomanlaw-basedsystemwithformsofaction,writtenpleadings,useofjuriesandpatternsoflitigationsuchasDemurrerandAssumpsitthatdisplayedanincreasedconcernforelementsofrightandwrongontheactualfacts.[153]Aconsciencevoteinaparliamentallowslegislatorstovotewithoutrestrictionsfromanypoliticalpartytowhichtheymaybelong.[154]InhistrialinJerusalemNaziwarcriminalAdolfEichmannclaimedhewassimplyfollowinglegalordersunderparagraph48oftheGermanMilitaryCodewhichprovided:"punishabilityofanactionoromissionisnotexcusedonthegroundthatthepersonconsideredhisbehaviourrequiredbyhisconscienceortheprescriptsofhisreligion".[155]TheUnitedNationsUniversalDeclarationonHumanRights(UDHR)whichispartofinternationalcustomarylawspecificallyreferstoconscienceinArticles1and18.[4]Likewise,theUnitedNationsInternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRights(ICCPR)mentionsconscienceinArticle18.1.[156]Allhumanbeingsarebornfreeandequalindignityandrights.Theyareendowedwithreasonandconscienceandshouldacttowardsoneanotherinaspiritofbrotherhood— UnitedNations,UniversalDeclarationonHumanRightsArticle1Everyonehastherighttofreedomofthought,conscienceandreligion;thisrightincludesfreedomtochangehisreligionorbelief,andfreedom,eitheraloneorincommunitywithothersandinpublicorprivate,tomanifesthisreligionorbeliefinteaching,practice,worshipandobservance— UnitedNations,UniversalDeclarationonHumanRightsArticle18Everyoneshallhavetherighttofreedomofthought,conscienceandreligion.Thisrightshallincludefreedomtohaveortoadoptareligionorbeliefofhischoice,andfreedom,eitherindividuallyorincommunitywithothersandinpublicorprivate,tomanifesthisreligionorbeliefinworship,observance,practiceandteaching— UnitedNations,InternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRightsArticle18.1Ithasbeenarguedthatthesearticlesprovideinternationallegalobligationsprotectingconscientiousobjectorsfromserviceinthemilitary.[157] NonviolentprotestorsinWashington,D.C.in2010opposedtotheIraqWar AmnestyInternationalprotectsprisonersofconscience.StampfromFaroeIslands,1986. JohnRawlsinhisATheoryofJusticedefinesaconscientiousobjectorasanindividualpreparedtoundertake,inpublic(andoftendespitewidespreadcondemnation),anactionofcivildisobediencetoalegalrulejustifyingit(alsoinpublic)byreferencetocontraryfoundationalsocialvirtues(suchasjusticeaslibertyorfairness)andtheprinciplesofmoralityandlawderivedfromthem.[158]Rawlsconsideredcivildisobedienceshouldbeviewedasanappeal,warningoradmonishment(showinggeneralrespectandfidelitytotheruleoflawbythenon-violenceandtransparencyofmethodsadopted)thatalawbreachesacommunity'sfundamentalvirtueofjustice.[158]ObjectionstoRawls'theoryincludefirst,itsinabilitytoaccommodateconscientiousobjectionstothesociety'sbasicappreciationofjusticeortoemergingmoralorethicalprinciples(suchasrespectfortherightsofthenaturalenvironment)whicharenotyetpartofitandsecond,thedifficultyofpredictablyandconsistentlydeterminingthatamajoritydecisionisjustorunjust.[159]Conscientiousobjection(alsocalledconscientiousrefusalorevasion)toobeyingalaw,shouldnotarisefromunreasoning,naive"traditionalconscience",fortodosomerelyencouragesinfantileabdicationofresponsibilitytocalibratethelawagainstmoralorhumanrightsnormsanddisrespectfordemocraticinstitutions.[160]Insteaditshouldbebasedon"criticalconscience'–seriouslythoughtout,conceptuallymature,personalmoralorreligiousbeliefsheldtobefundamentallyincompatible(thatis,notmerelyinconsistentonthebasisofselfishdesires,whimorimpulse),forexample,eitherwithalllawsrequiringconscriptionformilitaryservice,orlegalcompulsiontofightfororfinanciallysupporttheStateinaparticularwar.[161]AfamousexamplearosewhenHenryDavidThoreautheauthorofWaldenwaswillinglyjailedforrefusingtopayataxbecauseheprofoundlydisagreedwithagovernmentpolicyandwasfrustratedbythecorruptionandinjusticeofthedemocraticmachineryofthestate.[162]AmorerecentcaseconcernedKimberlyRivera,aprivateintheUSArmyandmotheroffourchildrenwho,havingserved3monthsinIraqWardecidedtheconflictwasimmoralandsoughtrefugeestatusinCanadain2012(seeListofIraqWarresisters),butwasdeportedandarrestedintheUS.[163] HenryDavidThoreau:Mustthecitizeneverforamoment,orintheleastdegree,resignhisconsciencetothelegislator? "Unjustlawsexist;shallwebecontenttoobeythem,orshallweendeavourtoamendthem,andobeythemuntilwehavesucceeded,orshallwetransgressthematonce? ...Amanhasnoteverythingtodobutsomething;andbecausehecannotdoeverything,itisnotnecessarythatheshoulddosomethingwrong ...ItisfornoparticulariteminthetaxbillthatIrefusetopayit.IsimplywishtorefuseallegiancetotheState,towithdrawandstandalooffromiteffectually.IdonotcaretotracethecourseofmydollarifIcould,tillitbuysaman,oramuskettoshootonewith—thedollarisinnocent—butIamconcernedtotracetheeffectsofmyallegiance ...Mustthecitizeneverforamoment,orintheleastdegree,resignhisconsciencetothelegislator?Whyhaseverymanaconscience,then?" —HenryDavidThoreau.CivilDisobedience.1848.reprintedSignetClassic,NewYork.1960pp.228,229,236. IntheSecondWorldWar,GreatBritaingrantedconscientious-objectionstatusnotjusttocompletepacifists,buttothosewhoobjectedtofightinginthatparticularwar;thiswasdonepartlyoutofgenuinerespect,butalsotoavoidthedisgracefulandfutilepersecutionsofconscientiousobjectorsthatoccurredduringtheFirstWorldWar.[164] AmnestyInternationalorganisescampaignstoprotectthosearrestedandorincarceratedasaprisonerofconsciencebecauseoftheirconscientiousbeliefs,particularlyconcerningintellectual,politicalandartisticfreedomofexpressionandassociation.[165]AungSanSuuKyiofBurma,wasthewinnerofthe2009AmnestyInternationalAmbassadorofConscienceAward.Inlegislation,aconscienceclauseisaprovisioninastatutethatexcusesahealthprofessionalfromcomplyingwiththelaw(forexamplelegalisingsurgicalorpharmaceuticalabortion)ifitisincompatiblewithreligiousorconscientiousbeliefs.[166] Expressedjustificationsforrefusingtoobeylawsbecauseofconsciencevary.Manyconscientiousobjectorsaresoforreligiousreasons—notably,membersofthehistoricpeacechurchesarepacifistbydoctrine.Otherobjectionscanstemfromadeepsenseofresponsibilitytowardhumanityasawhole,orfromtheconvictionthatevenacceptanceofworkundermilitaryordersacknowledgestheprincipleofconscriptionthatshouldbeeverywherecondemnedbeforetheworldcaneverbecomesafeforrealdemocracy.[167]Aconscientiousobjector,however,doesnothaveaprimaryaimofchangingthelaw.[158]JohnDeweyconsideredthatconscientiousobjectorswereoftenthevictimsof"moralinnocency"andinexpertnessinmoraltraining:"themovingforceofeventsisalwaystoomuchforconscience".[168]Theremedywasnottodeplorethewickednessofthosewhomanipulateworldpower,buttoconnectconsciencewithforcesmovinginanotherdirection-tobuildinstitutionsandsocialenvironmentspredicatedontheruleoflaw,forexample,"thenwillconscienceitselfhavecompulsivepowerinsteadofbeingforeverthemartyredandthecoerced."[168]Asanexample,AlbertEinsteinwhohadadvocatedconscientiousobjectionduringtheFirstWorldWarandhadbeenalongtermsupporterofWarResisters'Internationalreasonedthat"radicalpacifism"couldnotbejustifiedinthefaceofNazirearmamentandadvocatedaworldfederalistorganizationwithitsownprofessionalarmy.[169] SamuelJohnsonpointedoutthatanappealtoconscienceshouldnotallowthelawtobringunjustsufferinguponanother.Conscience,accordingtoJohnson,wasnothingmorethanaconvictionfeltbyourselvesofsomethingtobedoneorsomethingtobeavoided;inquestionsofsimpleunperplexedmorality,conscienceisveryoftenaguidethatmaybetrusted.[170]Butbeforeconsciencecanconclusivelydeterminewhatmorallyshouldbedone,hethoughtthatthestateofthequestionshouldbethoroughlyknown.[170]"Noman'sconscience",saidJohnson"cantellhimtherightofanotherman ...itisaconscienceveryillinformedthatviolatestherightsofoneman,fortheconvenienceofanother."[170] GandhiinNoakhali,1946:civilresistanceorsatyagraha GlobalwarmingprotestorsinChicago2008 ChiuneSugiharapractisedconscientiousnoncomplianceinissuingvisastofleeingJewsinLithuaniain1939 NASAclimatescientistJamesHansenarrestedin2011forcivildisobedienceagainstlawsallowingatarsandsoilpipeline Civildisobedienceasnon-violentprotestorcivilresistancearealsoactsofconscience,butaredesignedbythosewhoundertakethemchieflytochange,byappealingtothemajorityanddemocraticprocesses,lawsorgovernmentpoliciesperceivedtobeincoherentwithfundamentalsocialvirtuesandprinciples(suchasjustice,equalityorrespectforintrinsichumandignity).[171]Civildisobedience,inaproperlyfunctioningdemocracy,allowsaminoritywhofeelstronglythatalawinfringestheirsenseofjustice(buthavenocapacitytoobtainlegislativeamendmentsorareferendumontheissue)tomakeapotentiallyapatheticoruninformedmajoritytakeaccountoftheintensityofopposingviews.[172]Anotableexampleofcivilresistanceorsatyagraha("satya"insanskritmeans"truthandcompassion","agraha"means"firmnessofwill")involvedMahatmaGandhimakingsaltinIndiawhenthatactwasprohibitedbyaBritishstatute,inordertocreatemoralpressureforlawreform.[173]RosaParkssimilarlyactedonconsciencein1955inMontgomery,Alabamarefusingalegalordertogiveupherseattomakeroomforawhitepassenger;heraction(andthesimilarearlieractof15-year-oldClaudetteColvin)leadingtotheMontgomerybusboycott.[174]RachelCorriewasaUScitizenallegedlykilledbyabulldozeroperatedbytheIsraelDefenseForces(IDF)whileinvolvedindirectaction(basedonthenon-violentprinciplesofMartinLutherKingJr.andMahatmaGandhi)topreventdemolitionofthehomeoflocalPalestinianpharmacistSamirNasrallah.[175]AlGorehasargued"Ifyou'reayoungpersonlookingatthefutureofthisplanetandlookingatwhatisbeingdonerightnow,andnotdone,Ibelievewehavereachedthestagewhereitistimeforcivildisobediencetopreventtheconstructionofnewcoalplantsthatdonothavecarboncaptureandsequestration."[176]In2011,NASAclimatescientistJamesE.Hansen,environmentalleaderPhilRadfordandProfessorBillMcKibbenwerearrestedforopposingatarsandsoilpipeline[177][178]andCanadianrenewableenergyprofessorMarkJaccardwasarrestedforopposingmountain-topcoalmining;[179]inhisbookStormsofmyGrandchildrenHansencallsforsimilarcivilresistanceonaglobalscaletohelpreplacethe'business-as-usual'KyotoProtocolcapandtradesystem,withaprogressivecarbontaxatemissionsourceontheoil,gasandcoalindustries–revenuebeingpaidasdividendstolowcarbonfootprintfamilies.[180][181][182] Notablehistoricalexamplesofconscientiousnoncomplianceinadifferentprofessionalcontextincludedthemanipulationofthevisaprocessin1939byJapaneseConsul-GeneralChiuneSugiharainKaunas(thetemporarycapitalofLithuaniabetweenGermanyandtheSovietUnion)andbyRaoulWallenberginHungaryin1944[183]toallowJewstoescapealmostcertaindeath.[184]HoFeng-ShantheChineseConsul-GeneralinViennain1939,defiedordersfromtheChineseambassadorinBerlintoissueJewswithvisasforShanghai.[185]JohnRabeaGermanmemberoftheNaziPartylikewisesavedthousandsofChinesefrommassacrebytheJapanesemilitaryatNanking.[186]TheWhiteRoseGermanstudentmovementagainsttheNazisdeclaredintheir4thleaflet:"Wewillnotbesilent.Weareyourbadconscience.TheWhiteRosewillnotleaveyouinpeace!"[187]Conscientiousnoncompliancemaybetheonlypracticaloptionforcitizenswishingtoaffirmtheexistenceofaninternationalmoralorderor'core'historicalrights(suchastherighttolife,righttoafairtrialandfreedomofopinion)instateswherenon-violentprotestorcivildisobediencearemetwithprolongedarbitrarydetention,torture,forceddisappearance,murderorpersecution.[188] ThecontroversialMilgramexperimentintoobediencebyStanleyMilgramshowedthatmanypeoplelackthepsychologicalresourcestoopenlyresistauthority,evenwhentheyaredirectedtoactcallouslyandinhumanelyagainstaninnocentvictim.[189] Worldconscience[edit] Furtherinformation:Comparativereligion,Universalism,Worldgovernment,Cosmopolitanism,andCommonheritageofhumanity Worldconscienceistheuniversalistideathatwithreadyglobalcommunication,allpeopleonearthwillnolongerbemorallyestrangedfromoneanother,whetheritbeculturally,ethnically,orgeographically;insteadtheywillconceiveethicsfromtheutopianpointofviewoftheuniverse,eternityorinfinity,ratherthanhavetheirdutiesandobligationsdefinedbyforcesarisingsolelywithintherestrictiveboundariesof"bloodandterritory".[5] Oftenthisderivesfromaspiritualornaturallawperspective,thatforworldpeacetobeachieved,conscience,properlyunderstood,shouldbegenerallyconsideredasnotnecessarilylinked(oftendestructively)tofundamentalistreligiousideologies,butasanaspectofuniversalconsciousness,accesstowhichisthecommonheritageofhumanity.[190]ThinkingpredicatedonthedevelopmentofworldconscienceiscommontomembersoftheGlobalEcovillageNetworksuchastheFindhornFoundation,internationalconservationorganisationslikeFaunaandFloraInternational,aswellasperformersofworldmusicsuchasAlanStivell.[191]Non-governmentorganizations,particularlythroughtheirworkinagenda-setting,policy-makingandimplementationofhumanrights-relatedpolicy,havebeenreferredtoastheconscienceoftheworld[192] EdwardOWilsonhasdevelopedtheideaofconsiliencetoencouragecoherenceofglobalmoralandscientificknowledgesupportingthepremisethat"onlyunifiedlearning,universallyshared,makesaccurateforesightandwisechoicepossible".[193]Thus,worldconscienceisaconceptthatoverlapswiththeGaiahypothesisinadvocatingabalanceofmoral,legal,scientificandeconomicsolutionstomoderntransnationalproblemssuchasglobalpovertyandglobalwarming,throughstrategiessuchasenvironmentalethics,climateethics,naturalconservation,ecology,cosmopolitanism,sustainabilityandsustainabledevelopment,biosequestrationandlegalprotectionofthebiosphereandbiodiversity.[194][195][196][197][198]TheNGO350.org,forexample,seekstoattractworldconsciencetotheproblemsassociatedwithelevationinatmosphericgreenhousegasconcentrations.[199][200] InternetMap.NinianSmartpredictsglobalcommunicationwillfacilitateworldconscience. ThemicrocreditinitiativesofNobelPeacePrizewinnerMuhammadYunushavebeendescribedasinspiringa"waronpovertythatblendssocialconscienceandbusinesssavvy".[201] TheGreenpartypoliticianBobBrown(whowasarrestedbytheTasmanianstatepoliceforaconscientiousactofcivildisobedienceduringtheFranklinDamprotest)expressesworldconscienceintheseterms:"theuniverse,throughus,isevolvingtowardsexperiencing,understandingandmakingchoicesaboutitsfuture';oneexampleofpolicyoutcomesfromsuchthinkingbeingaglobaltax(seeTobintax)toalleviateglobalpovertyandprotectthebiosphere,amountingto1/10of1%placedontheworldwidespeculativecurrencymarket.[202]Suchanapproachseesworldconsciencebestexpressingitselfthroughpoliticalreformspromotingdemocraticallybasedglobalisationorplanetarydemocracy(forexampleinternetvotingforglobalgovernanceorganisations(seeworldgovernment)basedonthemodelof"oneperson,onevote,onevalue")whichgraduallywillreplacecontemporarymarket-basedglobalisation.[203] UnderwaterAmericannucleartestinthePacific.Worldwideexpressionsof'conscience'againstsuchexplosionscausedtheFrenchGovernmenttoceaseatmospherictestsatMururoaforpoliticalreasons. TheAmericancardiologistBernardLownandtheRussiancardiologistYevgeniyChazovweremotivatedinconsciencethroughstudyingthecatastrophicpublichealthconsequencesofnuclearwarinestablishingInternationalPhysiciansforthePreventionofNuclearWar(IPPNW)whichwasawardedtheNobelPeacePrizein1985andcontinuestoworkto"healanailingplanet".[204]WorldwideexpressionsofconsciencecontributedtothedecisionoftheFrenchgovernmenttohaltatmosphericnucleartestsatMururoainthePacificin1974after41suchexplosions(althoughbelow-groundnucleartestscontinuedthereintothe1990s).[205] Achallengetoworldconsciencewasprovidedbyaninfluential1968articlebyGarrettHardinthatcriticallyanalyzedthedilemmainwhichmultipleindividuals,actingindependentlyafterrationallyconsultingself-interest(and,heclaimed,theapparentlylow'survival-of-the-fittest'valueofconscience-ledactions)ultimatelydestroyasharedlimitedresource,eventhougheachacknowledgessuchanoutcomeisnotinanyone'slong-terminterest.[147]Hardin'sconclusionthatcommonsareasarepracticablyachievableonlyinconditionsoflowpopulationdensity(andsotheircontinuancerequiresstaterestrictiononthefreedomtobreed),createdcontroversyadditionallythroughhisdirectdeprecationoftheroleofconscienceinachievingindividualdecisions,policiesandlawsthatfacilitateglobaljusticeandpeace,aswellassustainabilityandsustainabledevelopmentofworldcommonsareas,forexampleincludingthoseofficiallydesignatedsuchunderUnitedNationstreaties(seecommonheritageofhumanity).[206]AreasdesignatedcommonheritageofhumanityunderinternationallawincludetheMoon,OuterSpace,deepseabed,Antarctica,theworldculturalandnaturalheritage(seeWorldHeritageConvention)andthehumangenome.[207]Itwillbeasignificantchallengeforworldconsciencethatasworldoil,coal,mineral,timber,agriculturalandwaterreservesaredepleted,therewillbeincreasingpressuretocommerciallyexploitcommonheritageofmankindareas.[208] DarfurrefugeecampinChad:achallengetotheworld'sconscience. ThephilosopherPeterSingerhasarguedthattheUnitedNationsMillenniumDevelopmentGoalsrepresenttheemergenceofanethicsbasednotonnationalboundariesbutontheideaofoneworld.[209]NinianSmarthassimilarlypredictedthattheincreaseinglobaltravelandcommunicationwillgraduallydrawtheworld'sreligionstowardsapluralisticandtranscendentalhumanismcharacterizedbyan"openspirit"ofempathyandcompassion.[210] SombreroGalaxy:AUnitedNationstreatydeclaresOuterSpacethecommonheritageofhumanity.GarrettHardindoubtedthecapacityofconsciencetoprotectsuchcommonsareas NoamChomskyhasarguedthatforcesopposingthedevelopmentofsuchaworldconscienceincludefreemarketideologiesthatvalorisecorporategreedinnominalelectoraldemocracieswhereadvertising,shoppingmallsandindebtedness,shapecitizensintoapatheticconsumersinrelationtoinformationandaccessnecessaryfordemocraticparticipation.[211]JohnPassmorehasarguedthatmysticalconsiderationsabouttheglobalexpansionofallhumanconsciousness,shouldtakeintoaccountthatifasaspecieswedobecomesomethingmuchsuperiortowhatwearenow,itwillbeasaconsequenceofconsciencenotonlyimplantingagoalofmoralperfectibility,butassistingustoremainperiodicallyanxious,passionateanddiscontented,forthesearenecessarycomponentsofcareandcompassion.[212]TheCommitteeonConscienceoftheUSHolocaustMemorialMuseumhastargetedgenocidessuchasthoseinRwanda,Bosnia,Darfur,theCongoandChechnyaaschallengestotheworld'sconscience.[213]OscarAriasSanchezhascriticisedglobalarmsindustryspendingasafailureofconsciencebynationstates:"Whenacountrydecidestoinvestinarms,ratherthanineducation,housing,theenvironment,andhealthservicesforitspeople,itisdeprivingawholegenerationofitsrighttoprosperityandhappiness.Wehaveproducedonefirearmforeveryteninhabitantsofthisplanet,andyetwehavenotbotheredtoendhungerwhensuchafeatiswellwithinourreach.Thisisnotanecessaryorinevitablestateofaffairs.Itisadeliberatechoice"(seeCampaignAgainstArmsTrade).[214]USHouseofRepresentativesSpeakerNancyPelosi,aftermeetingwiththe14thDalaiLamaduringthe2008violentprotestsinTibetandaftermathsaid:"ThesituationinTibetisachallengetotheconscienceoftheworld."[215]NelsonMandela,throughhisexampleandwords,hasbeendescribedashavingshapedtheconscienceoftheworld.[216]TheRightLivelihoodAwardisawardedyearlyinSwedentothosepeople,mostlystronglymotivatedbyconscience,whohavemadeexemplarypracticalcontributionstoresolvingthegreatchallengesfacingourplanetanditspeople.[217]In2009,forexample,alongwithCatherineHamlin(obstetricfistulaandseefistulafoundation)),DavidSuzuki(promotingawarenessofclimatechange)andAlynWare(nucleardisarmament),RenéNgongosharedtheRightLivelihoodAward"forhiscourageinconfrontingtheforcesthataredestroyingtheCongoBasin'srainforestsandbuildingpoliticalsupportfortheirconservationandsustainableuse".[218][219]Avaazisoneofthelargestglobalon-lineorganizationslaunchedinJanuary2007topromoteconscience-drivenactivismonissuessuchasclimatechange,humanrights,animalrights,corruption,poverty,andconflict,thus"closingthegapbetweentheworldwehaveandtheworldmostpeopleeverywherewant".[220] Notableexamplesofmodernactsbasedonconscience[edit] Furtherinformation:ListofnonviolencescholarsandleadersandListofwhistleblowers GraffitiportraitinRamallahofmurderedArabcartoonartistNajial-Ali Inanotablecontemporaryactofconscience,ChristianbushwalkerBrendaHeanprotestedagainstthefloodingofLakePedderdespitethreatsandthatultimatelyleadtoherdeath.[221]AnotherwasthecampaignbyKenSaro-WiwaagainstoilextractionbymultinationalcorporationsinNigeriathatledtohisexecution.[222]SotoowastheactbytheTankMan,ortheUnknownRebelphotographedholdinghisshoppingbaginthepathoftanksduringtheprotestsatBeijing'sTiananmenSquareon5June1989.[223]TheactionsofUnitedNationsSecretaryGeneralDagHammarskjöldtotryandachievepeaceintheCongodespitethe(eventuating)threattohislife,werestronglymotivatedbyconscienceasisreflectedinhisdiary,Vägmärken(Markings).[224]AnotherexampleinvolvedtheactionsofWarrantOfficerHughThompson,JrtotryandpreventtheMyLaiMassacreintheVietnamWar.[225]EvanPederickvoluntarilyconfessedandwasconvictedoftheSydneyHiltonbombingstatingthathisconsciencecouldnottoleratetheguiltandthat"IguessIwasquiteuniqueintheprisonsysteminthatIhadtokeepprovingmyguilt,whereaseveryoneelsesaidtheywereinnocent."[226]VasiliArkhipovwasaRussiannavalofficeronout-of-radio-contactSovietsubmarineB-59beingdepth-chargedbyUSwarshipsduringtheCubanMissileCrisiswhosedissentwhentwootherofficersdecidedtolaunchanucleartorpedo(unanimousagreementtolaunchwasrequired)mayhaveavertedanuclearwar.[227]In1963BuddhistmonkThichQuangDucperformedafamousactofself-immolationtoprotestagainstallegedpersecutionofhisfaithbytheVietnameseNgoDinhDiemregime.[228] GravesiteofAnnaPolitkovskayainRussia ConscienceplayedamajorroleintheactionsbyanaesthetistStephenBolsintowhistleblow(seelistofwhistleblowers)onincompetentpaediatriccardiacsurgeonsattheBristolRoyalInfirmary.[229]JeffreyWigandwasmotivatedbyconsciencetoexposetheBigTobaccoscandal,revealingthatexecutivesofthecompaniesknewthatcigaretteswereaddictiveandapprovedtheadditionofcarcinogenicingredientstothecigarettes.[230]DavidGraham,aFoodandDrugAdministrationemployee,wasmotivatedbyconsciencetowhistleblowthatthearthritispain-relieverVioxxincreasedtheriskofcardiovasculardeathsalthoughthemanufacturersuppressedthisinformation.[231]RickPiltzfromtheU.S.globalwarmingScienceProgram,blewthewhistleonaWhiteHouseofficialwhoignoredmajorityscientificopiniontoeditaclimatechangereport("OurChangingPlanet")toreflecttheBushadministration'sviewthattheproblemwasunlikelytoexist."[232]Muntadharal-Zaidi,anIraqijournalist,wasimprisonedandallegedlytorturedforhisactofconscienceinthrowinghisshoesatGeorgeW.Bush.[233]MordechaiVanunuanIsraeliformernucleartechnician,actedonconsciencetorevealdetailsofIsrael'snuclearweaponsprogramtotheBritishpressin1986;waskidnappedbyIsraeliagents,transportedtoIsrael,convictedoftreasonandspent18yearsinprison,includingmorethan11yearsinsolitaryconfinement.[234] GaoZhishenghumanrightslawyerabductedinChina GravesiteofNedaAgha-SoltaninBehesht-eZahracemeteryinIran ProtestsinIndiaagainstthe2012Delhigangrapecase Attheawardsceremonyforthe200metresatthe1968SummerOlympicsinMexicoCityJohnCarlos,TommieSmithandPeterNormanignoreddeaththreatsandofficialwarningstotakepartinananti-racismprotest[235]thatdestroyedtheirrespectivecareers.[236]W.MarkFeltanagentoftheUnitedStatesFederalBureauofInvestigationwhoretiredin1973astheBureau'sAssociateDirector,actedonconsciencetoprovidereportersBobWoodwardandCarlBernsteinwithinformationthatresultedintheWatergatescandal.[237]ConsciencewasamajorfactorinUSPublicHealthServiceofficerPeterBuxtunrevealingtheTuskegeesyphilisexperimenttothepublic.[238]The2008attackbytheIsraelimilitaryoncivilianareasofPalestinianGazawasdescribedasa"stainontheworld'sconscience".[239]ConsciencewasamajorfactorintherefusalofAungSanSuuKyitoleaveBurmadespitehousearrestandpersecutionbythemilitarydictatorshipinthatcountry.[240] ConsciencewasafactorinPeterGalbraith'scriticismoffraudinthe2009AfghanistanelectiondespiteitcostinghimhisUnitedNationsjob.[241]ConsciencemotivatedBunnatineGreenhousetoexposeirregularitiesinthecontractingoftheHalliburtoncompanyforworkinIraq.[242]Najial-AliapopularcartoonartistintheArabworld,lovedforhisdefenseoftheordinarypeople,andforhiscriticismofrepressionanddespotismbyboththeIsraelimilitaryandYasserArafat'sPLO,wasmurderedforrefusingtocompromisewithhisconscience.[243]ThejournalistAnnaPolitkovskayaprovided(priortohermurder)anexampleofconscienceinheroppositiontotheSecondChechenWarandthen-RussianPresidentVladimirPutin.[244]ConsciencemotivatedtheRussianhumanrightsactivistNataliaEstemirova,whowasabductedandmurderedinGrozny,Chechnyain2009.[245]TheDeathofNedaAgha-Soltanarosefromconscience-drivenprotestsagainstthe2009Iranianpresidentialelection.[246]MuslimlawyerShirinEbadi(winnerofthe2003NobelPeacePrize)hasbeendescribedasthe'conscienceoftheIslamicRepublic'forherworkinprotectingthehumanrightsofwomenandchildreninIran.[247]ThehumanrightslawyerGaoZhisheng,oftenreferredtoasthe'conscienceofChina'andwhohadpreviouslybeenarrestedandallegedlytorturedaftercallingforrespectforhumanrightsandforconstitutionalreform,wasabductedbyChinesesecurityagentsinFebruary2009.[248]2010NobelPeacePrizewinnerLiuXiaoboinhisfinalstatementbeforebeingsentencedbyaclosedChinesecourttooveradecadeinjailasapoliticalprisonerofconsciencestated:"Forhatrediscorrosiveofaperson’swisdomandconscience;thementalityofenmitycanpoisonanation’sspirit."[249]SergeiMagnitsky,alawyerinRussia,wasarrested,heldwithouttrialforalmostayearanddiedincustody,asaresultofexposingcorruption.[250]On6October2001LauraWhittlewasanavalgunneronHMASAdelaide(FFG01)underorderstoimplementanewborderprotectionpolicywhentheyencounteredtheSIEV-4(SuspectedIllegalEntryVessel-4)refugeeboatinchoppyseas.Afterbeingorderedtofirewarningshotsfromher50calibremachineguntomaketheboatturnbackshesawitbeginningtobreakupandsinkwithafatheronboardholdingouthisyoungdaughterthatshemightbesaved(seeChildrenOverboardAffair).Whittlejumpedwithoutalifevest12metresintotheseatohelpsavetherefugeesfromdrowningthinking"thisisn'tright;thisisn'thowthingsshouldbe."[251]InFebruary2012journalistMarieColvinwasdeliberatelytargetedandkilledbytheSyrianArmyinHomsduringthe2011–2012SyrianuprisingandSiegeofHoms,aftershedecidedtostayatthe"epicentreofthestorm"inorderto"exposewhatishappening".[citationneeded]InOctober2012theTalibanorganisedtheattemptedmurderofMalalaYousafzaiateenagegirlwhohadbeencampaigning,despitetheirthreats,forfemaleeducationinPakistan.[252]InDecember2012the2012DelhigangrapecasewassaidtohavestirredthecollectiveconscienceofIndiatocivildisobedienceandpublicprotestatthelackoflegalactionagainstrapistsinthatcountry(seeRapeinIndia)[253][254]InJune2013EdwardSnowdenrevealeddetailsofaUSNationalSecurityAgencyinternetandelectroniccommunicationPRISM(surveillanceprogram)becauseofaconscience-feltobligationtothefreedomofhumanitygreaterthanobediencetothelawsthatboundhisemployment.[255][256] Inliterature,art,film,andmusic[edit] Furtherinformation:Philosophyandliterature AntonPavlovichChekhov.TretyakovGallery. FyodorDostoevsky,authorofCrimeandPunishment TheancientepicoftheIndiansubcontinent,theMahabharataofVyasa,containstwopivotalmomentsofconscience.ThefirstoccurswhenthewarriorArjunabeingovercomewithcompassionagainstkillinghisopposingrelativesinwar,receivescounsel(seeBhagavad-Gita)fromKrishnaabouthisspiritualduty("workasthoughyouareperformingasacrificeforthegeneralgood").[257]Thesecond,attheendofthesaga,iswhenkingYudhishthirahavingalonesurvivedthemoraltestsoflife,isofferedeternalbliss,onlytorefuseitbecauseafaithfuldogispreventedfromcomingwithhimbypurporteddivinerulesandlaws.[258]TheFrenchauthorMontaigne(1533–1592)inoneofthemostcelebratedofhisessays("Onexperience")expressedthebenefitsoflivingwithaclearconscience:"Ourdutyistocomposeourcharacter,nottocomposebooks,towinnotbattlesandprovinces,butorderandtranquillityinourconduct.Ourgreatandgloriousmasterpieceistoliveproperly".[259]InhisfamousJapanesetraveljournalOkunoHosomichi(NarrowRoadtotheDeepNorth)composedofmixedhaikupoetryandprose,MatsuoBashō(1644–94)inattemptingtodescribetheeternalinthisperishableworldisoftenmovedinconscience;forexamplebyathicketofsummergrassbeingallthatremainsofthedreamsandambitionsofancientwarriors.[260]Chaucer's"Franklin'sTale"inTheCanterburyTalesrecountshowayoungsuitorreleasesawifefromarashpromisebecauseoftherespectinhisconscienceforthefreedomtobetruthful,gentleandgenerous.[261] EugèneDelacroix,HamletandHoratiointheGraveyard(1839,oiloncanvas)ThecriticA.C.BradleydiscussesthecentralproblemofShakespeare'stragiccharacterHamletasonewhereconscienceintheformofmoralscruplesdeterstheyoungPrincewithhis"greatanxietytodoright"fromobeyinghisfather'shell-boundghostandmurderingtheusurpingKing("is'tnotperfectconsciencetoquithimwiththisarm?"(v.ii.67)).[262] BradleydevelopsatheoryaboutHamlet'smoralagonyrelatingtoaconflictbetween"traditional"and"critical"conscience:"Theconventionalmoralideasofhistime,whichhesharedwiththeGhost,toldhimplainlythatheoughttoavengehisfather;butadeeperconscienceinhim,whichwasinadvanceofhistime,contendedwiththeseexplicitconventionalideas.Itisbecausethisdeeperconscienceremainsbelowthesurfacethathefailstorecogniseit,andfanciesheishinderedbycowardiceorslothorpassionorwhatnot;butitemergesintolightinthatspeechtoHoratio.Anditisjustbecausehehasthisnoblermoralnatureinhimthatweadmireandlovehim".[263]TheopeningwordsofShakespeare'sSonnet94("Theythathavepow'rtohurt,andwilldonone")havebeenadmiredasadescriptionofconscience.[264]SohasJohnDonne'scommencementofhispoems:Goodfriday,1613.RidingWestward:"Letman'ssoulbeasphere,andthen,inthis,Th'intelligencethatmoves,devotionis;"[265] AntonChekhovinhisplaysTheSeagull,UncleVanyaandThreeSistersdescribesthetorturedemotionalstatesofdoctorswhoatsomepointintheircareershaveturnedtheirbackonconscience.[266]Inhisshortstories,Chekhovalsoexploredhowpeoplemisunderstoodthevoiceofatorturedconscience.Apromiscuousstudent,forexample,inTheFitdescribesitasa"dullpain,indefinite,vague;itwaslikeanguishandthemostacutefearanddespair ...inhisbreast,undertheheart"andtheyoungdoctorexaminingthemisunderstoodagonyofcompassionexperiencedbythefactoryowner'sdaughterinFromaCaseBookcallsitan"unknown,mysteriouspower ...infactcloseathandandwatchinghim."[267]Characteristically,Chekhov'sownconsciencedrovehimonthelongjourneytoSakhalintorecordandalleviatetheharshconditionsoftheprisonersatthatremoteoutpost.AsIrinaRatushinskayawritesintheintroductiontothatwork:"Abandoningeverything,hetravelledtothedistantislandofSakhalin,themostfearedplaceofexileandforcedlabourinRussiaatthattime.Onecannothelpbutwonderwhy?Simply,becausethelotofthepeopletherewasabitterone,becausenobodyreallyknewaboutthelivesanddeathsoftheexiles,becausehefeltthattheystoodingreaterneedofhelpthatanyoneelse.Astrangereason,maybe,butnotforawriterwhowastheepitomeofallthebesttraditionsofaRussianmanofletters.Russianliteraturehasalwaysfocusedonquestionsofconscienceandwas,therefore,apowerfulforceinthemouldingofpublicopinion."[268] E.H.CarrwritesofDostoevsky'scharactertheyoungstudentRaskolnikovinthenovelCrimeandPunishmentwhodecidestomurdera'vileandloathsome'oldwomanmoneylenderontheprincipleoftranscendingconventionalmorals:"thesequelrevealstousnotthepangsofastrickenconscience(whichalesssubtlewriterwouldhavegivenus)butthetragicandfruitlessstruggleofapowerfulintellecttomaintainaconvictionwhichisincompatiblewiththeessentialnatureofman."[269]HermannHesse,authorofSiddhartha.HermannHessewrotehisSiddharthatodescribehowayoungmaninthetimeoftheBuddhafollowshisconscienceonajourneytodiscoveratranscendentinnerspacewhereallthingscouldbeunifiedandsimplyunderstood,endingupdiscoveringthatpersonaltruththroughselflessserviceasaferryman.[270]J.R.R.TolkieninhisepicTheLordoftheRingsdescribeshowonlythehobbitFrodoispureenoughinconsciencetocarrytheringofpowerthroughwar-tornMiddle-earthtodestructionintheCracksofDoom,Frododeterminingattheendtojourneywithoutweapons,andbeingsavedfromfailurebyhisearlierdecisiontosparethelifeofthecreatureGollum.[271]ConorCruiseO'BrienwrotethatAlbertCamuswasthewritermostrepresentativeoftheWesternconsciousnessandconscienceinitsrelationtothenon-Westernworld.[272]HarperLee'sToKillaMockingbirdportraysAtticusFinch(playedbyGregoryPeckintheclassicfilmfromthebook(seeToKillaMockingbird))asalawyertruetohisconsciencewhosetsanexampletohischildrenandcommunity.[273] TheRobertBoltplayAManForAllSeasonsfocusesontheconscienceofCatholiclawyerThomasMoreinhisstrugglewithKingHenryVIII("theloyalsubjectismoreboundentobeloyaltohisconsciencethantoanyotherthing").[274]GeorgeOrwellwrotehisnovelNineteenEighty-FourontheisolatedislandofJura,Scotlandtodescribehowaman(WinstonSmith)attemptstodevelopcriticalconscienceinatotalitarianstatewhichwatcheseveryactionofthepeopleandmanipulatestheirthinkingwithamixtureofpropaganda,endlesswarandthoughtcontrolthroughlanguagecontrol(doublethinkandnewspeak)tothepointwhereprisonerslookuptoandevenlovetheirtorturers.[275]IntheMinistryofLove,Winston'storturer(O'Brien)states:"Youareimaginingthatthereissomethingcalledhumannaturewhichwillbeoutragedbywhatwedoandwillturnagainstus.Butwecreatehumannature.Menareinfinitelymalleable".[276] AtapestrycopyofPicasso'sGuernicadepictingamassacreofinnocentwomenandchildrenduringtheSpanishcivilwarisdisplayedonthewalloftheUnitedNationsbuildinginNewYorkCity,attheentrancetotheSecurityCouncilroom,demonstrablyasaspurtotheconscienceofrepresentativesfromthenationstates.[277]AlbertTuckerpaintedMan'sHeadtocapturethemoraldisintegration,andlackofconscience,ofamanconvictedofkickingadogtodeath.[278] VincentvanGogh,1890.Kröller-MüllerMuseum.OntheThresholdofEternity. TheimpressionistpainterVincentvanGoghwroteinalettertohisbrotherTheoin1878that"onemustneverletthefireinone'ssouldie,forthetimewillinevitablycomewhenitwillbeneeded.Andhewhochoosespovertyforhimselfandlovesitpossessesagreattreasureandwillhearthevoiceofhisconscienceaddresshimeverymoreclearly.Hewhohearsthatvoice,whichisGod'sgreatestgift,inhisinnermostbeingandfollowsit,findsinitafriendatlast,andheisneveralone! ...Thatiswhatallgreatmenhaveacknowledgedintheirworks,allthosewhohavethoughtalittlemoredeeplyandsearchedandworkedandlovedalittlemorethantherest,whohaveplumbedthedepthsoftheseaoflife."[279] The1957IngmarBergmanfilmTheSeventhSealportraysthejourneyofamedievalknight(MaxvonSydow)returningdisillusionedfromthecrusades("whatisgoingtohappentothoseofuswhowanttobelieve,butaren'tableto?")acrossaplague-riddenlandscape,undertakingagameofchesswiththepersonificationofDeathuntilhecanperformonemeaningfulaltruisticactofconscience(overturningthechessboardtodistractDeathlongenoughforafamilyofjugglerstoescapeintheirwagon).[280]The1942CasablancacentersonthedevelopmentofconscienceinthecynicalAmericanRickBlaine(HumphreyBogart)inthefaceofoppressionbytheNazisandtheexampleoftheresistanceleaderVictorLaszlo.[281]TheDavidLeanandRobertBoltscreenplayforDoctorZhivago(anadaptationofBorisPasternak'snovel)focusesstronglyontheconscienceofadoctor-poetinthemidstoftheRussianRevolution(intheend"thewallsofhisheartwerelikepaper").[282]The1982RidleyScottfilmBladeRunnerfocusesonthestrugglesofconsciencebetweenandwithinabountyhunter(RickDeckard(HarrisonFord))andarenegadereplicantandroid(RoyBatty(RutgerHauer))inafuturesocietywhichrefusestoacceptthatformsofartificialintelligencecanhaveaspectsofbeingsuchasconscience.[283] J.S.Bach.OriginalpagefromCredo(SymbolumNicenum)sectionofMassinBminor JohannSebastianBachwrotehislastgreatchoralcompositiontheMassinBminor(BWV232)toexpressthealternatingemotionsofloneliness,despair,joyandrapturethatariseasconsciencereflectsonadepartedhumanlife.[284]HereJSBach'suseofcounterpointandcontrapuntalsettings,hisdynamicdiscourseofmelodicallyandrhythmicallydistinctvoicesseekingforgivenessofsins("Quitollispeccatamundi,misererenobis")evokesaspiralingmoralconversationofallhumanityexpressinghisbeliefthat"withdevotionalmusic,Godisalwayspresentinhisgrace".[285] LudwigvanBeethoven'smeditationsonillness,conscienceandmortalityintheLateStringQuartetsledtohisdedicatingthethirdmovementofStringQuartetinAMinor(1825)Op.132(seeStringQuartetNo.15)asa"HymnofThanksgivingtoGodofaconvalescent".[286][287]JohnLennon'swork"Imagine"owesmuchofitspopularappealtoitsevocationofconscienceagainsttheatrocitiescreatedbywar,religiousfundamentalismandpolitics.[288]TheBeatlesGeorgeHarrison-writtentrack"TheInnerLight"setstoIndianragamusicaversefromtheTaoTeChingthat"withoutgoingoutofyourdooryoucanknowthewaysofheaven'.[289]Inthe1986movieTheMissiontheguiltyconscienceandpenanceoftheslavetraderMendozaismademorepoignantbythehauntingoboemusicofEnnioMorricone("OnEarthasitisinHeaven")[290]ThesongSweetLullabybyDeepForestisbasedonatraditionalBaegulullabyfromtheSolomonIslandscalled"Rorogwela"inwhichayoungorphaniscomfortedasanactofconsciencebyhisolderbrother.[291]TheDreamAcademysong'ForestFire'providedanearlywarningofthemoraldangersofour'blackcloud''bringingdownadifferentkindofweather ...lettingthesunshinein,that'showtheendbegins."[292] TheAmericanSocietyofJournalistsandAuthors(ASJA)presentstheConscience-in-MediaAwardtojournalistswhomthesocietydeemsworthyofrecognitionfordemonstrating"singularcommitmenttothehighestprinciplesofjournalismatnotablepersonalcostorsacrifice".[293] TheAmbassadorofConscienceAward,AmnestyInternational'smostprestigioushumanrightsaward,takesitsinspirationfromapoemwrittenbyIrishNobelprize-winningpoetSeamusHeaneycalled"TheRepublicofConscience".[6] Winnersoftheawardhaveincluded:MalalaYousafzai,singerandsocialjusticeactivistHarryBelafonte,[294]musicianPeterGabriel(2008),NelsonMandela(2006),theIrishrockbandU2(2005),MaryRobinsonandHildaMoralesTrujillo(aGuatemalanwomen'srightsactivist)(2004)andtheauthorandpublicintellectualVáclavHavel(2003).[6] Seealso[edit] Amity-enmitycomplex AnEssayConcerningHumanUnderstanding,chapterXXVII:"OfIdentityandDiversity" Altruism Conscientiousobjector Conscientiousness Consciousness Ethics Evolutionaryethics Evolutionofmorality Freewill Guilt Innerlight JiminyCricket,symbolofconscienceinPinocchio(1940film) Listofnonviolencescholarsandleaders Mind–bodyproblem Moralemotions Moralvalue Morality Outlineofself Philosophyofmind Rationalityandpower Rationality Reason Socialconscience Subtlebody Synderesis References[edit] ^NinianSmart.TheWorld'sReligions:OldTraditionsandModernTransformations.CambridgeUniversityPress.1989.pp.10–21. ^PeterWinch.MoralIntegrity.BasilBlackwell.Oxford.1968 ^abRosemaryMoore.TheLightinTheirConsciences:TheEarlyQuakersinBritain1646–1666.PennsylvaniaStateUniversityPress,UniversityPark,PA.2000.ISBN 978-0-271-01988-8, ^abUnitedNations.UniversalDeclarationofHumanRights,G.A.res.217A(III),U.N.DocA/810at71(1948).http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/accessed22October2009. ^abBoothK,DunneTandCoxM(eds).HowMightWeLive?GlobalEthicsintheNewCentury.CambridgeUniversityPress.Cambridge2001p.1. ^abcAmnestyInternational.AmbassadorofConscienceAward.Retrieved31December2013. 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^AlWeisel,"DeepForest'sLushLullaby",RollingStone,21April1994,26 ^DreamAcademy.'ForestFire'.Lyrics"Archivedcopy".Archivedfromtheoriginalon27March2008.Retrieved6December2012.CS1maint:archivedcopyastitle(link)(accessed7December2012) ^Valk,ElizabethP.(24February1992)."FromthePublisher".Time.Retrieved20October2009. ^AmnestyInternationalhttps://www.amnesty.org/en/news/amnesty-international-announces-2013-ambassador-conscience-award-2013-09-16(accessed31December2013) Externallinks[edit] LookupconscienceinWiktionary,thefreedictionary. 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