Facial features Physicalattractiveness FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Aestheticassessmentofphysicaltraits VenusdeMiloattheLouvrehasbeendescribedasa"classicalvisionofbeauty".[1][2][3]However,oneexpertsuggestedthather"almostmatronlyrepresentation"wasmeanttoconveyan"impressiveappearance"ratherthan"idealfemalebeauty".[4]AdonisrestoredandcompletedbyFrançoisDuquesnoy,formerlyinthecollectionofCardinalMazarin(LouvreMuseum) Ishtar,Mesopotamiangoddessofsexualloveandwar.Thegoddesshasbeenassociatedwithsexuality,love,andfertility.[5][6][7] XiShi(西施),born506BC,wasoneoftheFourGreatBeautiesofancientChina.[8] Physicalattractivenessisthedegreetowhichaperson'sphysicalfeaturesareconsideredaestheticallypleasingorbeautiful.Thetermoftenimpliessexualattractivenessordesirability,butcanalsobedistinctfromeither.Therearemanyfactorswhichinfluenceoneperson'sattractiontoanother,withphysicalaspectsbeingoneofthem.Physicalattractionitselfincludesuniversalperceptionscommontoallhumanculturessuchasfacialsymmetry,[9]socioculturaldependentattributesandpersonalpreferencesuniquetoaparticularindividual.[10] Inmanycases,humanssubconsciouslyattributepositivecharacteristics,suchasintelligenceandhonesty,tophysicallyattractivepeople.[11]FromresearchdoneintheUnitedStatesandUnitedKingdom,itwasfoundthattheassociationbetweenintelligenceandphysicalattractivenessisstrongeramongmenthanamongwomen.[12]Evolutionarypsychologistshavetriedtoanswerwhyindividualswhoaremorephysicallyattractiveshouldalso,onaverage,bemoreintelligent,andhaveputforwardthenotionthatbothgeneralintelligenceandphysicalattractivenessmaybeindicatorsofunderlyinggeneticfitness.[12]Aperson'sphysicalcharacteristicscansignalcuestofertilityandhealth,[13][14]withstatisticalmodelingstudiesshowingthatthefacialshapevariablesthatreflectaspectsofphysiologicalhealth,includingbodyfatandbloodpressure,alsoinfluenceobservers'perceptionsofhealth.[15]Attendingtothesefactorsincreasesreproductivesuccess,furtheringtherepresentationofone'sgenesinthepopulation.[16] Heterosexualmen,onaverage,tendtobeattractedtowomenwhohaveayouthfulappearanceandexhibitfeaturessuchasasymmetricalface,[17]fullbreasts,fulllips,andalowwaist-hipratio.[18][19]Heterosexualwomen,onaverage,tendtobeattractedtomenwhoaretallerthantheyareandwhodisplayahighdegreeoffacialsymmetry,masculinefacialdimorphism,upperbodystrength,broadshoulders,arelativelynarrowwaist,andaV-shapedtorso.[20][21][22][23] Contents 1Generalcontributingfactors 1.1Facialfeatures 1.2Symmetry 1.3Bodyscent 1.4Genetics 1.5Youthfulness 1.6Leg-to-bodyratio 1.7Genitalia 1.8Skincolor 1.9Hands 1.10Height 2Male-specificfactors 2.1Sexualdimorphism 2.2Waist-to-chestratio 2.3Flatabdomen 2.4Musculature 2.5Bodyhair 2.6Facialhair 2.7Jawline 3Female-specificfactors 3.1Facialfeatures 3.1.1General 3.1.2Eyes 3.2Breasts 3.3Buttocks 3.4Bodymass 3.5Waist–hipratio 3.6Feetsize 3.7Hair 3.8Movementpatterns 3.9Fertility-drivenattractiveness 3.10Sexualornamentation 4Neuralcorrelatesofperceivingattractiveness 5Facialsimilarityandracialpreferences 6Groupattractivenesseffect 7Socialeffects 8Misconceptions 8.1TheGoldenRatio 9Seealso 10Notes 11References 12Externallinks Generalcontributingfactors[edit] TheManneristmovementwasnotafraidtoexaggeratebodyproportionsforaneffectconsideredattractive;Junoinaniche,engravingbyJacopoCaraglio,probablyofadrawingbyRossoFiorentino,1526 Generally,physicalattractivenesscanbeviewedfromanumberofperspectives;withuniversalperceptionsbeingcommontoallhumancultures,culturalandsocialaspects,andindividualsubjectivepreferences.Theperceptionofattractivenesscanhaveasignificanteffectonhowpeoplearejudgedintermsofemploymentorsocialopportunities,friendship,sexualbehavior,andmarriage.[24] Somephysicalfeaturesareattractiveinbothmenandwomen,particularlybodily[25]andfacialsymmetry,[26][27][28][29]althoughonecontraryreportsuggeststhat"absoluteflawlessness"withperfectsymmetrycanbe"disturbing".[30]Symmetrymaybeevolutionarilybeneficialasasignofhealthbecauseasymmetry"signalspastillnessorinjury".[31]Onestudysuggestedpeoplewereableto"gaugebeautyatasubliminallevel"byseeingonlyaglimpseofapictureforone-hundredthofasecond.[31]Otherimportantfactorsincludeyouthfulness,skinclarityandsmoothnessofskin;and"vividcolor"intheeyesandhair.[26]However,therearenumerousdifferencesbasedongender. A1921studyofthereportsofcollegestudentsregardingthosetraitsinindividualswhichmakeforattractivenessandrepulsivenessarguedthatstatictraits,suchasbeautyoruglinessoffeatures,holdapositionsubordinatetogroupsofphysicalelementslikeexpressivebehavior,affectionatedisposition,graceofmanner,aristocraticbearing,socialaccomplishmentsandpersonalhabits.[32] Grammerandcolleagueshaveidentifiedeight"pillars"ofbeauty:youthfulness,symmetry,averageness,sex-hormonemarkers,bodyodor,motion,skincomplexionandhairtexture.[33]TraditionallyinSamoa,bodyfatwasacceptableorattractive.[34] Facialfeatures[edit] AnItalianstudypublishedin2008studiedthepositionsofthe50soft-tissuelandmarksofthefacesof324whiteNorthernItalianadolescentboysandgirlstocomparethefeaturesofagroupof93"beautiful"individualsselectedbyacommercialcastingagencywiththoseofareferencegroupwithnormaldentofacialdimensionsandproportions.Theresearchfoundthat,incomparisonwiththereferencegroup,theattractiveadolescentstendedtohavethefollowingcharacteristics: theratiobetweenthevolumeoftheforeheadandthatofthetotalfacewaslarger; thenasalvolumewassmaller; thedistancebetweenoutercanthiwaslarger; totalfacialheightanddepthwerereduced. Sometendenciesdifferedbyageandsex: thefacialvolumewassmallerinolderattractiveboysthanintheirpeers,butbiggerinattractivegirls; thefacesofolderattractiveadolescentswerelessrounded(biggerratiobetweenfacialareaandvolume),butthereversewastrueforgirlsofanyage; attractiveolderboyshadsmalleranglesoffacialconvexitywithmoreacuteprofiles,whileingirlsthereversepatternwasfound; thenasolabialanglewasreducedingirls,butinolderboystheeffectwasreversed; olderattractiveboystendedtohavemoreprominentchins. Thestudyconcludedthatattractiveadolescentshadmoreneotenousandjuvenilefeatures,butolderattractiveboysalsoshowedtendenciestowardssexualdimorphism.[35] Contrarytocommonmisconception,onestudyfindsthatnon-severefacialscarringincreasesmaleattractivenessforshort-termrelationships.[36] Symmetry[edit] Symmetricalfacesandbodiesmaybesignsofgoodinheritancetowomenofchild-bearingageseekingtocreatehealthyoffspring.Studiessuggestwomenarelessattractedtomenwithasymmetricalfaces,[37]andsymmetricalfacescorrelatewithlongtermmentalperformance[38]andareanindicationthatamanhasexperienced"fewergeneticandenvironmentaldisturbancessuchasdiseases,toxins,malnutritionorgeneticmutations"whilegrowing.[38]Sinceachievingsymmetryisadifficulttaskduringhumangrowth,requiringbillionsofcellreproductionswhilemaintainingaparallelstructure,achievingsymmetryisavisiblesignalofgenetichealth. Studieshavealsosuggestedthatwomenatpeakfertilityweremorelikelytofantasizeaboutmenwithgreaterfacialsymmetry,[39]andotherstudieshavefoundthatmalesymmetrywastheonlyfactorthatcouldsignificantlypredictthelikelihoodofawomanexperiencingorgasmduringsex.Womenwithpartnerspossessinggreatersymmetryreportedsignificantlymorecopulatoryfemaleorgasmsthanwerereportedbywomenwithpartnerspossessinglowsymmetry,evenwithmanypotentialconfoundingvariablescontrolled.[40]Thisfindinghasbeenfoundtoholdacrossdifferentcultures.Ithasbeenarguedthatmasculinefacialdimorphism(inmen)andsymmetryinfacesaresignalsadvertisinggeneticqualityinpotentialmates.[41]Lowfacialandbodyfluctuatingasymmetrymayindicategoodhealthandintelligence,whicharedesirablefeatures.[42]Studieshavefoundthatwomenwhoperceivethemselvesasbeingmorephysicallyattractivearemorelikelytofavormenwithahigherdegreeoffacialsymmetry,thanarewomenwhoperceivethemselvesasbeinglessphysicallyattractive.[43]Ithasbeenfoundthatsymmetricalfemalesandmaleshaveatendencytobegintohavesexualintercourseatanearlierage,tohavemoresexualpartners,andtohavemoreone-nightstands.Theyarealsomorelikelytoengageininfidelity.[44]AstudyofquarterbacksintheAmericanNationalFootballLeaguefoundapositivecorrelationbetweenfacialsymmetryandsalaries.[27] Bodyscent[edit] Mainarticle:Bodyodor Double-blindstudiesfoundthatwomenpreferthescentofmenwhoareratedasfaciallyattractive.[45]Forexample,bothmalesandfemalesweremoreattractedtothenaturalscentofindividualswhohadbeenratedbyconsensusasfaciallyattractive.[46]Additionally,ithasalsobeenshownthatwomenhaveapreferenceforthescentofmenwithmoresymmetricalfaces,andthatwomen'spreferenceforthescentofmoresymmetricalmenisstrongestduringthemostfertileperiodoftheirmenstrualcycle.[47]Withinthesetofnormallycyclingwomen,individualwomen'spreferenceforthescentofmenwithhighfacialsymmetrycorrelatedwiththeirprobabilityofconception.[47]Men'sbodyodorisalsoaffectedbytheirdiet,withwomenexpressingpreferencesformalebodyodorassociatedwithincreaseddietaryfruitandvegetableandproteincontent,andreducedcarbohydratecontent.[48] Genetics[edit] Seealso:HeterozygoteadvantageandMajorhistocompatibilitycomplexandsexualselection Studieshaveexploredthegeneticbasisbehindsuchissuesasfacialsymmetryandbodyscentandhowtheyinfluencephysicalattraction.Inonestudyinwhichwomenworemen'sT-shirts,researchersfoundthatwomenweremoreattractedtothebodilyscentsinshirtsofmenwhohadadifferenttypeofgenesectionwithintheDNAcalledmajorhistocompatibilitycomplex(MHC).[49]MHCisalargegeneareawithintheDNAofvertebrateswhichencodesproteinsdealingwiththeimmunesystem[50]andwhichinfluencesindividualbodilyodors.[51]OnehypothesisisthathumansarenaturallyattractedbythesenseofsmellandtastetootherswithdissimilarMHCsections,perhapstoavoidsubsequentinbreedingwhileincreasingthegeneticdiversityofoffspring.[50]Furthermore,therearestudiesshowingthatwomen'snaturalattractionformenwithdissimilarimmuneprofilescanbedistortedwithuseofbirthcontrolpills.[51]OtherresearchfindingsinvolvingthegeneticfoundationsofattractionsuggestthatMHCheterozygositypositivelycorrelateswithmalefacialattractiveness.WomenjudgethefacesofmenwhoareheterozygousatallthreeMHClocitobemoreattractivethanthefacesofmenwhoarehomozygousatoneormoreoftheseloci.Additionally,asecondexperimentwithgenotypedwomenraters,foundthesepreferenceswereindependentofthedegreeofMHCsimilaritybetweenthemenandthefemalerater.WithMHCheterozygosityindependentlyseenasageneticadvantage,theresultssuggestthatfacialattractivenessinmenmaybeameasureofgeneticquality.[52][53]Generalgeneticheterozygosityhasbeendemonstratedtoberelatedtoattractivenessinthatpeoplewithmixedgeneticbackgrounds(i.e.,mixedracepeople)asseenasmoreattractivethanpeoplewithamoresimilargeneticparents.(i.e.,singleracepeople).[54]However,somestudieshavenotfoundthatmixedraceindividualsareratedasmoreattractive,andonefoundthatonlycertainmixeswereratedasmoreattractive;thisstudyarguedthatequatingracewithgeneticswasincorrectandarguedforsocialinfluencesasthecause.[55] Youthfulness[edit] Seealso:Agedisparityinsexualrelationships A2010OkCupidstudyon200,000ofitsmaleandfemaledatingsiteusersfoundthatwomenare,exceptthoseduringtheirearlytomid-twenties,opentorelationshipswithbothsomewhatolderandsomewhatyoungermen;theyhavealargerpotentialdatingpoolthanmenuntilage26.Atage20,women,ina"dramaticchange",beginsendingprivatemessagestosignificantlyoldermen.Atage29,theybecome"evenmoreopentooldermen".Maledesirabilitytowomenpeaksinthelate20sanddoesnotfallbelowtheaverageforallmenuntil36.[56]Otherresearchindicatesthatwomen,irrespectiveoftheirownage,areattractedtomenwhoarethesameageorolder.[57] FortheRomansespecially,"beardlessness"and"smoothyoungbodies"wereconsideredbeautifultobothmenandwomen.[58]ForGreekandRomanmen,themostdesirabletraitsofboysweretheir"youth"and"hairlessness".Pubescentboyswereconsideredasociallyappropriateobjectofmaledesire,whilepost-pubescentboyswereconsideredtobe"ἔξωροι"or"pasttheprime".[58]Thiswaslargelyinthecontextofpederasty(adultmaleinterestinadolescentboys).Today,menandwomen'sattitudestowardsmalebeautyhaschanged.Forexample,bodyhaironmenmayevenbepreferred(seebelow). A1984studysaidthatgaymentendtoprefergaymenofthesameageasidealpartners,buttherewasastatisticallysignificanteffect(p<0.05)ofmasculinity-femininity.Thestudysaidthatmorefemininementendedtopreferrelativelyoldermenthanthemselvesandmoremasculinementendedtopreferrelativelyyoungermenthanthemselves.[59] Cross-culturaldatashowsthatthereproductivesuccessofwomenistiedtotheiryouthandphysicalattractiveness[60]suchasthepre-industrialSamiwherethemostreproductivelysuccessfulwomenwere15yearsyoungerthantheirman.[61]Onestudycovering37culturesshowedthat,onaverage,awomanwas2.5yearsyoungerthanhermalepartner,withtheagedifferenceinNigeriaandZambiabeingatthefarextremeof6.5to7.5years.Asmenage,theytendtoseekamatewhoiseveryounger.[62] 25%ofeHarmony'smalecustomersovertheageof50requesttoonlybematchedwithwomenyoungerthan40.[63]A2010OkCupidstudy,of200,000usersfoundthatfemaledesirabilitytoitsmaleuserspeaksatage21,andfallsbelowtheaverageforallwomenat31.Afterage26,menhavealargerpotentialdatingpoolthanwomenonthesite;andbyage48,theirpoolisalmosttwiceaslarge.Themedian31-year-oldmaleusersearchesforwomenaged22to35,whilethemedian42-year-oldmalesearchesforwomen27to45.Theageskewisevengreaterwithmessagestootherusers;themedian30-year-oldmalemessagesteenagegirlsasoftenaswomenhisownage,whilemostlyignoringwomenafewyearsolderthanhim.Excludingthe10%mostand10%leastbeautifulofwomen,however,women'sattractivenessdoesnotchangebetween18and40,butifextremesarenotexcluded"There'snodoubtthatyounger[women]aremorephysicallyattractive–indeedinmanywaysbeautyandyouthareinextricable.That'swhymostofthemodelsyouseeinmagazinesareteenagers".[56] Pheromones(detectedbyfemalehormonemarkers)reflectsfemalefertilityandthereproductivevaluemean.[64]Asfemalesage,theestrogen-to-androgenproductionratiochangesandresultsinfemalefacestoappearmoreandmoremasculine(thusappearingless"attractive").[64]Inasmall(n=148)studyperformedintheUnitedStates,usingmalecollegestudentsatoneuniversity,themeanageexpressedasidealforawifewasfoundtobe16.87yearsold,while17.76wasthemeanidealageforabriefsexualencounter.However,thestudysetsupaframeworkwhere"taboosagainstsexwithyounggirls"arepurposelydiminished,andbiasedtheirsamplebyremovinganyparticipantovertheageof30,withameanparticipantageof19.83.[65]Inastudyofpeniletumescence,menwerefoundmostarousedbypicturesofyoungadultfemales.[66] Signalsoffertilityinwomenareoftenalsoseenassignalsofyouth.Theevolutionaryperspectiveproposestheideathatwhenitcomestosexualreproduction,theminimalparentalinvestmentrequiredbymengivesthemtheabilityandwanttosimplyreproduce'asmuchaspossible.'[67]Itthereforemakessensethatmenareattractedtothefeaturesinwomenwhichsignalyouthfulness,andthusfertility.[67]Theirchancesofreproductivesuccessaremuchhigherthantheywouldbeshouldtheypicksomeoneolder—andthereforelessfertile. Thismayexplainwhycombatingagedeclinesinattractivenessoccursfromayoungerageinwomenthaninmen.Forexample,theremovalofone'sbodyhairisconsideredaveryfemininethingtodo.[68]Thiscanbeexplainedbythefactthatagingresultsinraisedlevelsoftestosteroneandthus,bodyhairgrowth.Shavingrevertsone'sappearancetoamoreyouthfulstage[68]andalthoughthismaynotbeanhonestsignal,menwillinterpretthisasareflectionofincreasedfertilevalue.Researchsupportsthis,showinghairlessnesstoconsideredsexuallyattractivebymen.[69] Leg-to-bodyratio[edit] Mainarticle:Bodyproportions§ Legtobodyratio Thisdrawingoftwomalefiguresisaremakeofthedrawingoftheleg-to-bodyratio(LBR)extremesusedintheexperimentbySwamietal.(2006)tofindoutwhatLBRisconsideredthemostattractiveformenandwomen.ThefigurewiththelowestLBRandshortestlegsatlefthadthehighestaverageattractivenessratingswhereasthemalefigurewiththehighestLBRandlongestlegsatrighthadthelowestratingsfromBritishmenandwomen.[70] "Leg-to-bodyratio"isseenasindicatorofphysicalattractivenessbutthereappearstobenoaccepteddefinitionofleg-length:the'perineumtofloor'measure[a]isthemostusedbutarguablythedistancefromanklebonetoouterhipboneismorerigorous.[71]Onthis(latter)metric,themostattractiveratiooflegtobodyformen(asseenbyAmericanwomen)is1:1.[71]AJapanesestudyusingtheformermetricfoundthesameresultformaleattractivenessbutwomenwithlongerlegsthanbodywerejudgedtobemoreattractive.[72]Excessivedeviationsfromthemeanwereseenasindicativeofdisease.[72]Thisdrawingoftwofemalefiguresisaremakeofthedrawingoftheleg-to-bodyratio(LBR)extremesusedintheexperimentbySwamietal.(2006)tofindoutwhatLBRisconsideredthemostattractive.ThefemalefigurewiththelowestLBRandshortestlegsatlefthadthelowestaverageattractivenessratingswhereasthefigurewiththehighestLBRandlongestlegsatrighthadthehighestaverageattractivenessratingsfrombothBritishmenandwomen.[70] AstudyusingPolishparticipantsbySorokowskifound5%longerlegsthanaveragepersonlegtobodyratioforbothonmanandwomanwasconsideredmostattractive.[73]Thestudyconcludedthispreferencemightstemfromtheinfluenceofleggyrunwaymodels.[74]AnotherstudyusingBritishandAmericanparticipants,found"mid-ranging"leg-to-bodyratiostobemostideal.[75] AstudybySwamietal.ofBritishmaleandfemaleundergraduatesshowedapreferenceformenwithlegsaslongastherestoftheirbodyandwomenwith40%longerlegsthantherestoftheirbody.[70]TheresearcherconcludedthatthispreferencemightbeinfluencedbyAmericanculturewherelongleggedwomenareportrayedasmoreattractive.[70] MarcoBertaminicriticizedtheSwamietal.studyforusingapictureofthesamepersonwithdigitallyalteredleglengthswhichhefeltwouldmakethemodifiedimageappearunrealistic.[76]BertaminialsocriticizedtheSwamistudyforonlychangingtheleglengthwhilekeepingthearmlengthconstant.[76]Afteraccountingfortheseconcernsinhisownstudy,Bertamini'sstudywhichusedstickfiguresalsofoundapreferenceforwomenwithproportionatelylongerlegsthanmen.[76]WhenBertaminiinvestigatedtheissueofpossiblesexualdimorphismofleglength,hefoundtwosourcesthatindicatedthatmenusuallyhaveslightlyproportionatelylongerlegsthanwomenorthatdifferencesinleglengthproportionmaynotexistbetweenmenandwomen.[76]Followingthisreviewofexistingliteratureonthesubject,heconductedhisowncalculationsusingdatafrom1774menand2208women.Usingthisdata,hesimilarlyfoundthatmenusuallyhaveslightlyproportionatelylongerlegsthanwomenorthatdifferencesinleglengthproportionmaynotexistbetweenmenandwomen.Thesefindingsmadehimruleoutthepossibilitythatapreferenceforwomenwithproportionatelylongerlegsthanmenisdueproportionatelylongerlegsbeingasecondarysexcharacteristicofwomen.[76] Genitalia[edit] A2006study,of25,594heterosexualmenfoundthat"menwhoperceivedthemselvesashavingalargepenisweremoresatisfiedwiththeirownappearance".[77] A2014studycriticizedpreviousstudiesbasedonthefactthattheyreliedonimagesandusedtermssuchas"small","medium",and"large"whenaskingforfemalepreference.Thenewstudyused3Dmodelsofpenisesfromsizesof4inches(10 cm)longand2.5inches(6.4 cm)incircumferenceto8.5inches(22 cm)longand7inches(18 cm)incircumferenceandletthewomen"viewandhandle"them.Itwasfoundthatwomenoverestimatedtheactualsizeofthepenisestheyhaveexperimentedwithwhenaskedinafollow-upsurvey.Thestudyconcludedthat"womenonaveragepreferredthe6.5-inch(17 cm)penisinlengthbothforlong-termandforone-timepartners.Peniseswithlargergirthwerepreferredforone-timepartners."[78] Evidencefromvariousculturessuggeststhatheterosexualmentendtofindthesightofwomen'sgenitaliatobesexuallyarousing.[79] Skincolor[edit] Manuallaborerswhospentextendedperiodsoftimeoutsidedevelopedadarkerskintoneduetoexposuretothesun.Asaconsequence,anassociationbetweendarkskinandthelowerclassesdeveloped.Lightskinbecameanaestheticidealbecauseitsymbolizedwealth."Overtimesocietyattachedvariousmeaningstothesecoloreddifferences.Includingassumptionsaboutaperson'srace,socioeconomicclass,intelligence,andphysicalattractiveness."[80] Ascientificreviewpublishedin2011,identifiedfromavastbodyofempiricalresearchthatskincolouraswellasskintonetendtobepreferredastheyactasindicatorsofgoodhealth.Morespecifically,theseindicatorsarethoughttosuggesttopotentialmatesthatthebeholderhasstrongorgoodgenescapableoffightingoffdisease.[81] Morerecentresearchhassuggestedthatredderandyellowerskintones,[82]reflectinghigherlevelsofoxygenatedblood,[83]carotenoidandtoalesserextentmelaninpigment,andnetdietaryintakesoffruitandvegetables,[84]appearhealthier,andthereforemoreattractive.[85]Mainarticle:Humanskincolor§ Socialstatusandracism LesDeuxPerlesFernandLeQuesne(Thetwopearls,1889).Thispaintingwasintendedto"contrastaCaucasianwithanAfricanbeauty".Inthepainting,theblackwomanrepresentsthebeautyofablackpearlandthewhitewomanrepresentsthebeautyofawhitepearl.[86] Apreferenceforlighter-skinnedwomenhasbeendocumentedacrossmanycultures.[87][88]A2010studyfoundapreferenceforlighter-skinnedwomeninNewZealandandCalifornia.[89]InpartsofAfricaandAsia,skinbleachingiscommon.[90]Theuniversalityofthispreferencehoweverhasbeenquestionedbya2006studyonmenoftheBikossotribeinCameroonwhichfoundnoconsistentpreferenceforeitherlighterordarkerskinnedwomen.[91]Therelationshipbetweenattractivenessandskincolourmayalsointersectwithethnicityandpriorexperience.[92] Skincolorpreferencesmayshiftovertime,asinWesternculture,wheretannedskinusedtobeassociatedwiththesun-exposedmanuallaborofthelower-class,butsincethemid-20thcenturyithasgenerallybeenconsideredmoreattractiveandhealthierthanbefore,withsuntanningbecomingfashionable.[93][94][95][96][97] Skinradianceorglowingskinmayinfluenceperceptionofbeautyandphysicalattractiveness.[98][99] Hands[edit] Handshavebeenfoundtobephysicallyattractive.[100]Thetypeofhandsthatarephysicallyattractivearethosewithlongerindexandringfingers.[101]Menhaveasmallerindex-to-ring-fingerratiothanwomen.Thegenderdifferencesintheratiobetweentheindexandringfingersaresaidtobeinfluencedbyexposuretotestosteronewithinthewomb.[102]Inastudywhereparticipantswereshowncomputer-basedimagesofhands,maleparticipantsfoundfemininehandswithasmallerindexfingermoreattractive.Whereasfemalesfoundmasculinehandswithalongerringfingermoreattractive.Thestudysuggeststhatfingerlengthhasaneffectonphysicalattractionbecauseitgivesindicationofthedesirablesex-hormonedependenttraitswhichonemaypossess.[101]Anotherstudyfoundthataverageness,healthinessoftheskin,howfatthehandsappeartobe,andthegroomingofthehands,alleffecttheattractivenessofhands.[103]Whatismeantbyaveragenessisthedegreetowhichthehandslooklikeanaverageofthehandsinthepopulation.Averagelookinghandsgiveanindicationofanindividual'shealth(becausetherearenoabnormalities).Thehealthierlookingtheskinonthehands,themoreattractivetheyappear.Reasonsgivenforthissayskinhealthmayreflectanindividual'soverallhealth.Healthyskincanshowthatsomeoneisfreefromillnessbecausesomeillnesseshaveabadeffectonthelookofskin.Thesefeaturesarefoundattractivebecausetheyshowthatthepersonhasgoodgenesandisthereforeasuitablematetoreproducewith.Skinhealthmayalsogiveanindicationofsocioeconomicstatus,asroughhandsmayindicatealowpayinglaboriousjob.Lowsocioeconomicstatusmightshowthatsomeonedoesnothaveresourcestoprovidefortheoffspring,thereforethisislessattractive.Themorefatthehandsappear,thelessattractivetheyare.Thisisbecauseoftheco-morbidityassociatedwithobesity.Ifsomeoneisoverfat,theymayhaveanotherdisease,whichmeanstheymaynotbeabletoproducehealthyoffspring.Theattractivenessofthehandsalsogivesanindicationofotherfeaturesoftheindividual,peoplewithmoreattractivehandshavebeenfoundtobetallerandslimmer.[100]Inmostofthesehandattractivenessstudiesonlywhite,Europeanhandswereusedandtheparticipantswereintheagerangebetween18and26.So,theattractivenessofnon-whitehandsandofdifferentagegroupswasnottested.Also,thepeoplewhoratedthehandattractivenesswerewhiteEuropean,sotheirratingsmaynotrepresenthowindividualsofotherskincoloursandcultureswouldratethehands. Height[edit] Females'sexualattractiontowardsmalesmaybedeterminedbytheheightoftheman.[104]TheonlinedatingWebsiteeHarmonyonlymatcheswomenwithmentallerthanthemselves,becauseofcomplaintsfromwomenmatchedwithshortermen.[63] Otherstudieshaveshownthatheterosexualwomenoftenprefermentallerthantheyare,ratherthanamanwithaboveaverageheight.Whilewomenusuallydesirementobeatleastthesameheightasthemselvesortaller,severalotherfactorsalsodeterminemaleattractiveness,andthemale-tallernormisnotuniversal.[105]Forexample,tallerwomenaremorelikelytorelaxthe"tallermale"normthanshorterwomen.[106]Furthermore,professorAdamEyre-Walker,fromtheUniversityofSussex,hasstatedthatthereis,asyet,noevidencethatthesepreferencesareevolutionarypreferences,asopposedtomerelyculturalpreferences.[107]Still,theculturalperceivedattractivenesspreferencesfortallermenarepowerfulandconfirmedbymultiplestudies.Onestudyofspeed-datersbyStulpfoundthat"womenweremostlikelytochoose[men]25cmtallerthanthemselves,whereasmenweremostlikelytochoosewomenonly7cmshorterthanthemselves".[108] Additionally,womenseemmorereceptivetoanerectposturethanmen,thoughbothpreferitasanelementwithinbeauty.[109]Accordingtoonestudy(YeeN.,2002),gaymenwhoidentifyas"onlytops"tendtoprefershortermen,whilegaymenwhoidentifyas"onlybottoms"tendtoprefertallermen.[110] InromancesinMiddleEnglishliterature,allofthe"ideal"maleheroesaretall,andthevastmajorityofthe"valiant"maleheroesaretalltoo.[111] Mostmentendtobetallerthantheirfemalepartners.[19]Ithasbeenfoundthat,inWesternsocieties,mostmenpreferwomenshorterthanthemselves.[112]Havingsaidthis,heightisamoreimportantfactorforawomanwhenchoosingamanthanitisforamanchoosingawoman.[113]Westernmentendtoviewwomentallerthanthemselvesaslessattractive,[112]andpeopleviewheterosexualcoupleswherethewomanistallertobelessideal.[112]Womenwhoare0.7to1.7standarddeviationsbelowthemeanfemaleheighthavebeenreportedtobethemostreproductivelysuccessful,[114]sincefewertallwomengetmarriedcomparedtoshorterwomen.[112]However,inotherethnicgroups,suchastheHadzapeoplefromTanzania,astudyhasfoundthatheightisirrelevantinchoosingamate.[105]AnotherstudyfoundthesamepreferenceinruralGambia.[112] InMiddleEnglishliterature,"tallness"isacharacteristicofideallybeautifulwomen.[111]: 101 TheBritishFashionModelAgentsAssociation(BFMA)saysthatfemalemodelsshouldbeatleast5 ft8 in(1.73 m)tall.[115] Male-specificfactors[edit] Women,onaverage,tendtobemoreattractedtomenwhohavearelativelynarrowwaist,aV-shapedtorso,andbroadshoulders.Womenalsotendtobemoreattractedtomenwhoaretallerthantheyare,anddisplayahighdegreeoffacialsymmetry,aswellasrelativelymasculinefacialdimorphism.[20][21]Women,regardlessofsexualorientation,tendtobelessinterestedinapartner'sphysicalattractivenessthanmen.[116] Sexualdimorphism[edit] Mainarticle:Sexualdimorphism Thedegreeofdifferencesbetweenmaleandfemaleanatomicaltraitsiscalledsexualdimorphism.Femalerespondentsinthefollicularphaseoftheirmenstrualcycleweresignificantlymorelikelytochooseamasculinefacethanthoseinmensesandlutealphases,[117](orinthosetakinghormonalcontraception).[20][21][118][119]Thisdistinctionsupportsthesexysonhypothesis,whichpositsthatitisevolutionarilyadvantageousforwomentoselectpotentialfatherswhoaremoregeneticallyattractive,[120]ratherthanthebestcaregivers.[121]However,women'slikelinesstoexertefforttoviewmalefacesdoesnotseemtodependontheirmasculinity,buttoageneralincreasewithwomen'stestosteronelevels.[122] Itissuggestedthatthemasculinityoffacialfeaturesisareliableindicationofgoodhealth,or,alternatively,thatmasculine-lookingmalesaremorelikelytoachievehighstatus.[123]However,thecorrelationbetweenattractivefacialfeaturesandhealthhasbeenquestioned.[124]Socioculturalfactors,suchasself-perceivedattractiveness,statusinarelationshipanddegreeofgender-conformity,havebeenreportedtoplayaroleinfemalepreferencesformalefaces.[125]Studieshavefoundthatwomenwhoperceivethemselvesasphysicallyattractivearemorelikelytochoosemenwithmasculinefacialdimorphism,thanarewomenwhoperceivethemselvesasphysicallyunattractive.[43]Inmen,facialmasculinitysignificantlycorrelateswithfacialsymmetry–ithasbeensuggestedthatbotharesignalsofdevelopmentalstabilityandgenetichealth.[126]Onestudycalledintoquestiontheimportanceoffacialmasculinityinphysicalattractivenessinmen,arguingthatwhenperceivedhealth,whichisfactoredintofacialmasculinity,isdiscounteditmakeslittledifferenceinphysicalattractiveness.[127]Inacross-countrystudyinvolving4,794womenintheirearlytwenties,adifferencewasfoundinwomen'saverage"masculinitypreference"betweencountries.[128][129] Astudyfoundthatthesamegeneticfactorscausefacialmasculinityinbothmalesandfemalessuchthatamalewithamoremasculinefacewouldlikelyhaveasisterwithamoremasculinefaceduetothesiblingshavingsharedgenes.Thestudyalsofoundthat,althoughfemalefacesthatweremorefemininewerejudgedtobemoreattractive,therewasnoassociationbetweenmalefacialmasculinityandmalefacialattractivenessforfemalejudges.Withthesefindings,thestudyreasonedthatifawomanweretoreproducewithamanwithamoremasculineface,thenherdaughterswouldalsoinheritamoremasculineface,makingthedaughterslessattractive.Thestudyconcludedthattheremustbeotherfactorsthatadvantagethegeneticsformasculinemalefacestooffsettheirreproductivedisadvantageintermsof"health","fertility"and"facialattractiveness"whenthesamegeneticsarepresentinfemales.Thestudyreasonedthatthe"selectiveadvantage"formasculinemalefacesmust"have(orhad)"beenduetosomefactorthatisnotdirectlytiedtofemaleperceptionsofmalefacialattractiveness.[130] Inastudyof447gaymeninChina,researcherssaidthattopspreferredfeminizedmalefaces,bottomspreferredmasculinizedmalefacesandversatileshadnopreferenceforeitherfeminizedormasculinizedmalefaces.[131] Inpre-modernChineseliterature,theidealmanincaizijiarenromanceswassaidtohave"rosylips,sparklingwhiteteeth"anda"jasper-likeface"(Chinese:唇紅齒白、面若冠玉).[132][133] InMiddleEnglishliterature,abeautifulmanshouldhavealong,broadandstrongface.[111] Waist-to-chestratio[edit] Thephysiqueofaslimwaist,broadshouldersandmuscularchestareoftenfoundtobeattractivetobothfemalesandmales.[134]Furtherresearchhasshownthat,whenchoosingamate,thetraitsfemaleslookforindicatehighersocialstatus,suchasdominance,resources,andprotection.[135]Anindicatorofhealthinmales(acontributingfactortophysicalattractiveness)istheandroidfatdistributionpatternwhichiscategorizedasmorefatdistributedontheupperbodyandabdomen,commonlyreferredtoasthe"Vshape."[135]Whenaskedtorateothermen,bothheterosexualandhomosexualmenfoundlowwaist-to-chestratios(WCR)tobemoreattractiveonothermen,withthegaymenshowingapreferenceforlowerWCR(moreV-shaped)thanthestraightmen.[136] Otherresearchersfoundwaist-to-chestratiothelargestdeterminantofmaleattractiveness,withbodymassindexandwaist-to-hiprationotassignificant.[137] Womenfocusprimarilyontheratiowaisttochestormorespecificallywaisttoshoulder.Thisisanalogoustothewaisttohipratio(WHR)thatmenprefer.Keybodyimageforamanintheeyesofawomanwouldincludebigshoulders,chest,andupperback,andaslimwaistarea.[138][better source needed]Researchhasadditionallyshownthatcollegemaleshadabettersatisfactionwiththeirbodythancollegefemales.[139]Theresearchalsofoundthatwhenacollegefemale'swaisttohipratiowentup,theirbodyimagesatisfactiondecreased.[139] SomeresearchhasshownthatbodyweightmayhaveastrongereffectthanWHRwhenitcomestoperceivingattractivenessoftheoppositesex.Itwasfoundthatwaisttohipratioplayedasmallerroleinbodypreferencethanbodyweightinregardstobothsexes.[140] PsychologistsVirenSwamiandMartinJ.Toveecomparedfemalepreferenceformaleattractivenesscrossculturally,betweenBritainandMalaysia.TheyfoundthatfemalesplacedmoreimportanceonWCR(andthereforebodyshape)inurbanareasofBritainandMalaysia,whilefemalesinruralareasplacedmoreimportanceonBMI(thereforeweightandbodysize).BothWCRandBMIareindicativeofmalestatusandabilitytoprovideforoffspring,asnotedbyevolutionarytheory.[141] FemaleshavebeenfoundtodesiremalesthatarenormalweightandhavetheaverageWHRforamale.Femalesviewthesemalesasattractiveandhealthy.MaleswhohadtheaverageWHRbutwereoverweightorunderweightarenotperceivedasattractivetofemales.ThissuggeststhatWHRisnotamajorfactorinmaleattractiveness,butacombinationofbodyweightandatypicalmaleWHRseemtobethemostattractive.Researchhasshownthatmenwhohaveahigherwaisttohipratioandahighersalaryareperceivedasmoreattractivetowomen.[142] Flatabdomen[edit] A1982studyfoundthatanabdomenthatprotrudeswasthe"leastattractive"traitformen.[143] InMiddleEnglishliterature,abeautifulmanshouldhaveaflatabdomen.[111] Musculature[edit] Seealso:Bodybuilding Men'sbodiesportrayedinmagazinesmarketedtomenaremoremuscularthanthemen'sbodiesportrayedinmagazinesmarketedtowomen.Fromthis,somehaveconcludedthatmenperceiveamoremuscularmalebodytobeideal,asdistinctfromawoman'sidealmale,whichislessmuscularthanwhatmenperceivetobeideal.[144]Thisisduetothewithin-genderprestigegrantedbyincreasedmuscularityandwithin-gendercompetitionforincreasedmuscularity.[144]Menperceivetheattractivenessoftheirownmusculaturebyhowcloselytheirbodiesresemblethe"muscleman."[145]This"muscleman"idealischaracterizedbylargemusculararms,especiallybiceps,alargemuscularchestthattaperstotheirwaistandbroadshoulders.[145]AmongAustralianuniversitystudents,themalebodycompositionfoundtobemostattractive(12.16 kgfat,63.27 kgmuscle)wasinlinewiththecompositionthatwasperceivedashealthiest,andwaswellwithinthehealthyrange.[146] InastudyofstatedprofilepreferencesonMatch.com,agreaterpercentageofgaymenthanlesbiansselectedtheiridealpartner'sbodytypeas"AthleticandToned"asopposedtotheothertwooptionsof"Average"or"Overweight".[147] Inpre-modernChineseliterature,suchasinRomanceoftheWesternChamber,atypeofmasculinitycalled"scholarmasculinity"isdepictedwhereinthe"idealmalelover"is"weak,vulnerable,feminine,andpedantic".[132] InMiddleEnglishliterature,abeautifulmantypicallyhasthick,broadshoulders,asquareandmuscularchest,amuscularback,strongsidesthattapertoasmallwaist,largehandsandarmsandlegswithhugemuscles.[111] Bodyhair[edit] StudiesbasedintheUnitedStates,NewZealand,andChinahaveshownthatwomenratemenwithnotrunk(chestandabdominal)hairasmostattractive,andthatattractivenessratingsdeclineashairinessincreases.[148][149]Anotherstudy,however,foundthatmoderateamountsoftrunkhaironmenwasmostattractive,tothesampleofBritishandSriLankanwomen.[150]Further,adegreeofhirsuteness(hairiness)andawaist-to-shoulderratioof0.6isoftenpreferredwhencombinedwithamuscularphysique.[150] InastudyusingFinnishwomen,womenwithhairyfathersweremorelikelytopreferhairymen,suggestingthatpreferenceforhairymenistheresultofeithergeneticsorimprinting.[151]Amonggaymen,anotherstudy(YeeN.,2002)reportedgaymaleswhoidentifyas"onlytops"preferlesshairymen,whilegaymaleswhoidentifyas"onlybottoms"preferhairiermen.[110] Facialhair[edit] Onestudyshowsthatmenwithfacialhaircoveringthecheeks,upperlip,andlowerjawwereperceivedasmorephysicallyattractivethanmenwithpatchyfacialhair.[152]Inthisstudy,men'sfacialhairwassplitintofourcategories,eachdifferinginthethicknessandcoverage:verylight,light,medium,andheavy.Lightfacialhairwasratedasthemostattractive,followedbymedium,heavy,andtheleastattractivewas'verylight'.Thisstudysuggeststhatsomefacialhairisbetterthannonebecauseitshowsthemasculinedevelopmentasbeardgrowthrequirestheconversionoftestosterone.TheproblemwiththisstudyisitonlylookedatthefacialhairofEuropeanmenwithbrownhair.So,theresultsmaynotrepresentmenofallethnicitiesandhaircolours.Adifferentstudyfoundwomenaremoreattractedtoclean-shavenfacesthanbeardedfaces.[153] Jawline[edit] Thissectionmaybetootechnicalformostreaderstounderstand.Pleasehelpimproveittomakeitunderstandabletonon-experts,withoutremovingthetechnicaldetails.(February2022)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Mainarticle:mandible Amalejawangle,seenasattractiveamongpeopleofEuropeandescent,mayhavethefollowingfeatures:130°inprofileview;interregional[clarificationneeded]widthsimilartofacialwidth;verticalpositioninfrontalviewatthecornersofthemouthoratleastnotbelowthelowerlip;jawlineslopeinfrontalviewnearlyparallelto(withamaximum15°downwarddeviationfrom)alineextendingfromthelateralcanthustothealare;ascendingramusslope65°–75°totheFrankfurthorizontal;andcurvatureinobliqueviewvisible.[citationneeded]Becauseitgeneratesthegonialangle,theramushasafunctioninattractiveness.[citationneeded]Thegonialorjawangleistheangleformedbytheramusandtherestofthemandible.Itcanrangefrom90to140degrees,withthepopulationaveragebeing128+/-2.36degreesformalesand126+/-2.41degreesforfemales.Larger,moreobtusegonialanglesresultinarounder,feminineappearance,whereasmoreacutegonialanglesresultinsquare,masculinefaces.[154][155] Thisexactratioisnotseenasidealforeveryethnicgroup.Mostresearchshowsthatattractivebigonialwidthmeasurementshavesimilarities,butthejuttingsquarechinisaprominentlyEuropean-heritagetrait –whichmeansitshouldnotbeheldasauniversalindicatorofattractiveness.[156][157]Menwithlowsubmentalfatwereviewedtohave"betterjawlines"andamore"youthfullook".[158] Female-specificfactors[edit] Researchindicatesthatheterosexualmentendtobeattractedtoyoung[62]andbeautifulwomen[159]withbodilysymmetry.[160]Ratherthandecreasingit,modernityhasonlyincreasedtheemphasismenplaceonwomen'slooks.[161]Evolutionarypsychologistsattributesuchattractiontoanevaluationofthefertilitypotentialinaprospectivemate.[62] Facialfeatures[edit] General[edit] Seealso:CutenessandAverageness AUniversityofTorontostudyfoundthatthefacialproportionsofJessicaAlbawereclosetotheaverageofallfemaleprofiles. NamieAmuroinspiredthesmall-facefadinJapanwhichcausedJapanesewomentobuybeautyproductssuchasmasksandcreamstotrytoobtainasmallfacelikehers.[162] Researchhasattemptedtodeterminewhichfacialfeaturescommunicateattractiveness.Facialsymmetryhasbeenshowntobeconsideredattractiveinwomen,[163][164]andmenhavebeenfoundtopreferfulllips,[165]highforehead,broadface,smallchin,smallnose,shortandnarrowjaw,highcheekbones,[37][166]clearandsmoothskin,andwide-seteyes.[62]Theshapeofthefaceintermsof"howeverythinghangstogether"isanimportantdeterminantofbeauty.[167]Womenwiththick,darklimbalringsintheireyeshavealsobeenfoundtobemoreattractive.Theexplanationgivenisthatbecausetheringtendstofadewithageandmedicalproblems,aprominentlimbalringgivesanhonestindicatorofyouth.[168] InPersianliterature,beautifulwomenaresaidtohavenoseslikehazelnuts.[169]InArabiansocietyintheMiddleAges,acomponentofthefemalebeautyidealwasforwomentohavestraightandfinenoses.[170]InJewishRabbinicliterature,therabbisconsideredadelicatenosetobetheidealtypeofnoseforwomen.[171]InJapan,duringtheEdoperiod,acomponentofthefemalebeautyidealwasforwomentohavetallnoseswhichwerestraightandnot"tootall".[172] Inacross-culturalstudy,moreneotenized(i.e.,youthfullooking)femalefaceswerefoundtobemostattractivetomenwhilelessneotenizedfemalefaceswerefoundtobelessattractivetomen,regardlessofthefemales'actualage.[173]InastudyofItalianwomenwhohavewonbeautycompetitions,itwasfoundthattheirfaceshadmore"babyish"(pedomorphic)traitsthanthoseofthe"normal"womenusedasareference.[174] Inacross-culturalstudy,Marcinkowskaetal.saidthat18-to45-year-oldheterosexualmeninall28countriessurveyedpreferredphotographsof18-to24-year-oldwhitewomenwhosefaceswerefeminizedusingfacialimageeditingsoftwareoverfacesof18-to24-year-oldwhitewomenthatweremasculinizedusingthatsoftware,butthereweredifferencesinpreferencesforfemininityacrosscountries.ThehighertheNationalHealthIndexofacountry,themorewerethefeminizedfacespreferredoverthemasculinizedfaces.Amongthecountriessurveyed,JapanhadthehighestfemininitypreferenceandNepalhadthelowestfemininitypreference.[175] MichaelR.CunninghamoftheDepartmentofPsychologyattheUniversityofLouisvillefound,usingapanelofEastAsian,HispanicandWhitejudges,thattheAsian,HispanicandWhitefemalefacesfoundmostattractivewerethosethathad"neonatelargeeyes,greaterdistancebetweeneyes,andsmallnoses"[176]andhisstudyledhimtoconcludethat"largeeyes"werethemost"effective"ofthe"neonatecues".[176]Cunninghamalsosaidthat"shiny"hairmaybeindicativeof"neonatevitality".[176]Usingapanelofblacksandwhitesasjudges,Cunninghamfoundmoreneotenousfaceswereperceivedashavingbothhigher"femininity"and"sociability".[176]Incontrast,Cunninghamfoundthatfacesthatwere"lowinneoteny"werejudgedas"intimidating".[176]Cunninghamnoteda"difference"inthepreferencesofAsianandwhitejudgeswithAsianjudgespreferringwomenwith"lessmaturefaces"andsmallermouthsthantheWhitejudges.[176]Cunninghamhypothesizedthatthisdifferenceinpreferencemaystemfrom"ethnocentrism"since"Asianfacespossessthosequalities",soCunninghamre-analyzedthedatawith"11Asiantargetsexcluded"andconcludedthat"ethnocentrismwasnotaprimarydeterminantofAsianpreferences."[176]Ratherthanfindingevidenceforpurely"neonate"facesbeingmostappealing,Cunninghamfoundfaceswith"sexually-mature"featuresatthe"periphery"ofthefacecombinedwith"neonate"featuresinthe"centeroftheface"mostappealinginmenandwomen.[176]Uponanalyzingtheresultsofhisstudy,Cunninghamconcludedthatpreferencefor"neonatefeaturesmaydisplaytheleastcross-culturalvariability"intermsof"attractivenessratings"[176]and,inanotherstudy,Cunninghamconcludedthatthereexistsalargeagreementonthecharacteristicsofanattractiveface.[177][178] Incomputerfaceaveragingtests,womenwithaveragedfaceshavebeenshowntobeconsideredmoreattractive.[29][179]Thisispossiblyduetoaveragefeaturesbeingmorefamiliarand,therefore,morecomfortable.[163] CommentingontheprevalenceofwhitenessinsupposedbeautyidealsinhisbookWhiteLies:RaceandtheMythofWhiteness,MauriceBergerstatesthattheschematicrenderingintheidealizedfaceofastudyconductedwithAmericansubjectshad"straighthair,""lightskin,""almond-shapedeyes,""thin,archedeyebrows,""along,thinnose,closelysetandtinynostrils"and"alargemouthandthinlips",[180]thoughtheauthorofthestudystatedthattherewasconsistencybetweenhisresultsandthoseconductedonotherraces.ScholarLiuJieyusaysinthearticleWhiteCollarBeauties,"Thecriterionofbeautyisbotharbitraryandgendered.Theimplicitconsensusisthatwomenwhohavefairskinandaslimfigurewithsymmetricalfacialfeaturesarepretty."Hesaysthatalloftheserequirementsaresociallyconstructedandforcepeopletochangethemselvestofitthesecriteria.[181] Therearevariousopposingprinciplesoffemalebeautyincludingprettinessandrarity.Soonaverage,symmetricalfeaturesareoneideal,whileunusual,stand-outfeaturesareanother.[182][better source needed][183]AstudyperformedbytheUniversityofTorontofoundthatthemostattractivefacialdimensionswerethosefoundintheaveragefemaleface.However,thatparticularUniversityofTorontostudylookedonlyatwhitewomen.[184] AstudythatusedChinese,MalayandIndianjudgessaidthatChinesewomenwithorthognathismwherethemouthisflatandin-linewiththerestofthefacewerejudgedtobethemostattractiveandChinesewomenwithaprotrudingmandiblewherethejawprojectsoutwardwerejudgedtobetheleastattractive.[185] A2011study,byWilkins,ChanandKaiserfoundcorrelationsbetweenperceivedfemininityandattractiveness,thatis,women'sfaceswhichwereseenasmorefemininewerejudgedbybothmenandwomentobemoreattractive.[186] AcomponentofthefemalebeautyidealinPersianliteratureisforwomentohavefaceslikeafullmoon.[169][187][188] InArabiansocietyintheMiddleAges,acomponentofthefemalebeautyidealwasforwomentohaveroundfaceswhichwerelikea"fullmoon".[170] InJapan,duringtheEdoperiod,acomponentofthefemalebeautyidealwasforwomentohavelongandnarrowfaceswhichwereshapedlikeovals.[172] InJewishRabbinicliterature,therabbisconsideredfulllipstobetheidealtypeoflipsforwomen.[171] Historically,inChineseandJapaneseliterature,thefeminineidealwassaidtoincludesmalllips.[189]Womenwouldpainttheirlipsthinnerandnarrowertoalignwiththisideal.[190][191] ClassicalPersianliterature,paintings,andminiaturesportrayedtraitssuchaslongblackcurlyhair,asmallmouth,longarchedeyebrows,largealmondshapedeyes,asmallnose,andbeautyspotsasbeingbeautifulforwomen.[192] Eyes[edit] ThroughtheEastAsianblepharoplastycosmeticsurgeryprocedure,Asianwomencanpermanentlyalterthestructureoftheireyelid.SomepeoplehavearguedthatthisalterationisdonetoresemblethestructureofaWesterneyelid[193]whileotherpeoplehavearguedthatthisisgenerallydonesolelytoemulatetheappearanceofnaturallyoccurringAsiandoubleeyelids.[194] AstudythatinvestigatedwhetherornotaneyelidcreasemakesChinese-descentwomenmoreattractiveusingphoto-manipulatedphotographsofyoungChinese-descentwomen'seyesfoundthatthe"mediumuppereyelidcrease"wasconsideredmostattractivebyallthreegroupsofbothsexes:whitepeople,ChineseandTaiwanesenationalstogetherasagroup,andTaiwaneseandChineseAmericanstogetherasagroup.Similarly,allthreegroupsofbothgendersfoundtheabsenceofaneyecreasetobeleastattractiveonChinesewomen.[195] Inthelatesixteenthcentury,Japanesepeopleconsideredepicanthicfoldstobebeautiful.[196] AstudythatusedRussian,American,Brazilian,Aché,andHiwiraters,foundthattheonlystrongdistinguisherbetweenmenandwomen'sfaceswaswidereyesrelativetofacialheightforwomen,andthistraitconsistentlypredictedattractivenessratingsforwomen.[197] InArabiansocietyintheMiddleAges,acomponentofthefemalebeautyidealwasforwomentohavedarkblackeyeswhicharelargeandlongandintheshapeofalmonds.Furthermore,theeyesshouldbelustrous,andtheyshouldhavelongeyelashes.[170] Asourcewrittenin1823,saidthatacomponentofthePersianfemalebeautyidealwasforwomentohavelargeeyeswhichareblackincolor.[187]InPersianliterature,beautifulwomenaresaidtohaveeyesthatareshapedlikealmonds.[169] InChinese,thephrase"lucentirises,lustrousteeth"(Chinese:明眸皓齒)isusedtodescribeabeautifulwomanwith"cleareyes"and"well-aligned,whiteteeth",andthephrase"moth-feelereyebrows"(Chinese:蛾眉)isusedtodenoteabeautifulwomanbydescribinghereyebrowsasbeingthinandarchedlikemothantennae.IntheChinesetextTheGrottooftheImmortals(Chinese:遊仙窟)writtenduringtheTangdynastyperiod,narroweyeswerethepreferredtypeofeyesforwomen,and,intheChinesetextJeweledChamberSecrets(Chinese:玉房秘訣)fromtheSixDynastiesperiod,theidealwomanwasdescribedashavingsmalleyes.[172] InJapan,duringtheEdoperiod,onepieceofevidence,theappearanceofthe"formalwife"ofTokugawaIesadaasdeterminedby"boneanthropologist"SuzukiHisashi,indicatesthatlargeeyeswereconsideredattractiveforwomen,but,anotherpieceofevidence,the1813JapanesetextCustoms,Manners,andFashionsoftheCapital(Japanese:都風俗化粧伝),indicatesthatlargeeyeswerenotconsideredattractiveforwomen.[172] Breasts[edit] Seealso:Breastfetishism Researchhasshownthatmostheterosexualmenenjoythesightoffemalebreasts,[198]withapreferenceforlarge,firmbreasts.[199]However,acontradictorystudyofBritishundergraduatesfoundyoungermenpreferredsmallbreastsonwomen.[200]Smallerbreastswerewidelyassociatedwithyouthfulness.[201]Cross-culturally,anotherstudyfound"highvariability"regardingtheidealbreastsize.[200]SomeresearchersintheUnitedKingdomhavespeculatedthatapreferenceforlargerbreastsmayhavedevelopedinWesternsocietiesbecausewomenwithlargerbreaststendtohavehigherlevelsofthehormonesestradiolandprogesterone,whichbothpromotefertility.[202] AstudybyGroyeckaetal.,inwhichtheyexaminedPolesandYaliofNewGuinea,demonstratedthatmen'sjudgementsofbreastappearanceisaffectedbytheoccurrenceofbreastptosis(i.e.,sagginess,droopiness).[203]Greaterbreastptosis(moresaggingbreasts)isperceivedaslessattractiveandattributedtoawomanofolderage.Thesefindingsarecoherentwithpreviousresearchthatlinkbreastattractivenesswithfemaleyouthfulness.Unlikebreastsize,breastptosisseemstobeauniversalmarkeroffemalebreastattractiveness. Astudyshowedthatmenprefersymmetricalbreasts.[160][204]Breastsymmetrymaybeparticularlysensitivetodevelopmentaldisturbancesandthesymmetrydifferencesforbreastsarelargecomparedtootherbodyparts.Womenwhohavemoresymmetricalbreaststendtohavemorechildren.[205] Historicalliteratureoftenincludesspecificfeaturesofindividualsoragenderthatareconsidereddesirable.Thesehaveoftenbecomeamatterofconvention,andshouldbeinterpretedwithcaution.InArabiansocietyintheMiddleAges,acomponentofthefemalebeautyidealwasforwomentohavesmallbreasts.[170]InPersianliterature,beautifulwomenaresaidtohavebreastslikepomegranatesorlemons.[169]IntheChinesetextJeweledChamberSecrets(Chinese:玉房秘訣)fromtheSixDynastiesperiod,theidealwomanwasdescribedashavingfirmbreasts.[172]InSanskritliterature,beautifulwomenareoftensaidtohavebreastssolargethattheycausethewomentobendalittlebitfromtheirweight.[206]InMiddleEnglishliterature,beautifulwomenshouldhavesmallbreaststhatareroundlikeanappleorapear.[111] Buttocks[edit] Mainarticle:Culturalhistoryofthebuttocks ThisdrawingisaremakeofadrawingusedinanexperimenttoresearchwhatSouthAfrican,BritishwhiteandBritishAfricanmenconsideredtobethemostattractivesizeofposteriorandbreastsforwhiteandblackwomen.Thisimageonlyshowsthetwoextremevariationsofsizeonblackfemalefiguresusedintheexperiment.ThefigureatleftreceivedthehighestaverageattractivenessratingfromSouthAfricanmenwhileafigurewithanintermediatesizereceivedthehighestratingsfrombothwhiteandblackBritishmen.Thefigureatrightdidnotreceivethehighestaverageattractivenessratingfromanygroup.[207] BiologicalanthropologistHelenE.FisheroftheCenterforHumanEvolutionStudiesintheDepartmentofAnthropologyofRutgersUniversitysaidthat,"perhaps,thefleshy,roundedbuttocks...attractedmalesduringrear-entryintercourse."[208]Inarecentstudy,using3Dmodelsandeye-trackingtechnologyFisher'sclaimwastestedandwasshownthattheslightthrustingoutofawoman'sbackinfluencehowattractiveothersperceivehertobeandcapturesthegazeofbothmenandwomen.[209][210]BobbiS.Lowetal.oftheSchoolofNaturalResourcesandEnvironmentattheUniversityofMichigan,saidthefemale"buttocksevolvedinthecontextoffemalescompetingfortheattentionandparentalcommitmentofpowerfulresource-controllingmales"asan"honestdisplayoffatreserves"thatcouldnotbeconfusedwithanothertypeoftissue,[211]althoughT.M.Caro,professorintheCenterforPopulationBiologyandtheDepartmentofWildlife,Fish,andConservationBiology,atUniversityofCalifornia,Davis,rejectedthatasbeinganecessaryconclusion,statingthatfemalefattydepositsonthehipsimprove"individualfitnessofthefemale",regardlessofsexualselection.[211] Ina1995study,blackmenweremorelikelythanwhitementousethewords"big"or"large"todescribetheirconceptionofanattractivewoman'sposterior.[212] Bodymass[edit] BodyMassIndex(BMI)isanimportantdeterminanttotheperceptionofbeauty.[213]EventhoughtheWesternidealisforathinwoman,someculturespreferplumperwomen,[176][214]whichhasbeenarguedtosupportthatattractionforaparticularBMImerelyisaculturalartifact.[214]Theattractionforaproportionatebodyalsoinfluencesanappealforerectposture.[215]Onecross-culturalsurveycomparingbody-masspreferencesamong300ofthemostthoroughlystudiedculturesintheworldshowedthat81%ofculturespreferredafemalebodysizethatinEnglishwouldbedescribedas"plump".[216] Availabilityoffoodinfluenceswhichfemalebodysizeisattractivewhichmayhaveevolutionaryreasons.Societieswithfoodscarcitiespreferlargerfemalebodysizethansocietiesthathaveplentyoffood.InWesternsocietymaleswhoarehungrypreferalargerfemalebodysizethantheydowhennothungry.[217] BMIhasbeencriticisedforconflatingfatandmuscle,andmorerecentstudieshaveconcentratedonbodycomposition.AmongAustralianuniversitystudents,themostattractivebodycompositionforwomen(10.31 kgfat,42.45 kgmuscle)wasfoundtobelowerinfatthanboththemosthealthyappearingcomposition,andbelowthehealthyrange.[146] IntheUnitedStates,womenoverestimatemen'spreferencesforthinnessinamate.Inonestudy,Americanwomenwereaskedtochoosewhattheiridealbuildwasandwhattheythoughtthebuildmostattractivetomenwas.Womenchoseslimmerthanaveragefiguresforbothchoices.WhenAmericanmenwereindependentlyaskedtochoosethefemalebuildmostattractivetothem,themenchosefiguresofaveragebuild.Thisindicatesthatwomenmaybemisledastohowthinmenpreferwomentobe.[214]Somespeculatethatthinnessasabeautystandardisonewayinwhichwomenjudgeeachother[182][better source needed]andthatthinnessisviewedasprestigiousforwithin-genderevaluationsofotherwomen.[182][better source needed]Areportersurmisedthatthinnessisprizedamongwomenasa"signofindependence,strengthandachievement."[182][better source needed]Someimplicatedthefashionindustryforthepromulgationofthenotionofthinnessasattractive.[218] EastAsianshavehistoricallypreferredwomenwhosebodieshadsmallfeatures.Forexample,duringtheSpringandAutumnperiodofChinesehistory,womeninChineseharemswantedtohaveathinbodyinordertobeattractivefortheChineseemperor.Later,duringtheTangDynasty,alessthinbodytypewasseenasmostattractiveforChinesewomen.[219]InArabiansocietyintheMiddleAges,acomponentofthefemalebeautyidealwasforwomentobeslenderlikea"cane"ora"twig".[170]IntheChinesetextJeweledChamberSecrets(Chinese:玉房秘訣)fromtheSixDynastiesperiod,theidealwomanwasdescribedasnotbeing"large-boned".[172] IntheVictorianera,womenwhoadheredtoVictorianidealswereexpectedtolimittheirfoodconsumptiontoattaintheidealslimfigure.[220]InMiddleEnglishliterature,"slender"womenareconsideredbeautiful.[111] Accordingtoresearchonfemales,womenconsiderafullbodywithgooddistributiontobehighlyimportanttobeconsideredattractivebymen[221] Waist–hipratio[edit] Mainarticle:Waist–hipratio Measurementofwaisthipratio:Inaleanperson(left),thewaistcanbemeasuredatitsnarrowestpoint,whileforapersonwithconvexwaist(right),itmaybemeasuredataboutoneinch[222]abovethenavel.Thehipismeasuredatitswidestportionofthebuttocksatleft,andatthegreatertrochantersatright. AWHRof0.7forwomenhasbeenshowntocorrelatestronglywithgeneralhealthandfertility.Womenwithinthe0.7rangehaveoptimallevelsofestrogenandarelesssusceptibletomajordiseasessuchasdiabetes,heartdisease,andovariancancers.[223]WomenwithhighWHR(0.80orhigher)havesignificantlylowerpregnancyratesthanwomenwithlowerWHRs(0.70–0.79),independentoftheirBMIs.[224][225]Femalewaist-to-hipratio(WHR)hasbeenproposedbyevolutionarypsychologiststobeanimportantcomponentofhumanmalematechoice,becausethistraitisthoughttoprovideareliablecuetoawoman'sreproductivevalue.[226] Bothmenandwomenjudgewomenwithsmallerwaist-to-hipratiosmoreattractive.[227]Ethnicgroupsvarywithregardtotheiridealwaist-to-hipratioforwomen,[228]rangingfrom0.6inChina,[229]to0.8or0.9inpartsofSouthAmericaandAfrica,[230][231][91]anddivergentpreferencesbasedonethnicity,ratherthannationality,havealsobeennoted.[232][233]AstudyfoundtheMachiguengapeople,anisolatedindigenousSouthAmericanethnicgroup,preferwomenwithhighWHR(0.9).[234]Thepreferenceforheavierwomen,hasbeeninterpretedtobelongtosocietieswherethereisnoriskofobesity.[235] InChinese,thephrase"willowwaist"(Chinese:柳腰)isusedtodenoteabeautifulwomanbydescribingherwaistasbeingslenderlikeawillowbranch.[172] IntheVictorianera,asmallwaistwasconsideredthemaintraitofabeautifulwoman.[220]Theterm"waspwaist"describesanextremefashionsilhouette,producedbyastyleofcorsetandgirdle. Feetsize[edit] Accordingtosomestudies,mostmenpreferwomenwithsmallfeet,[236][237]suchasinancientChinawherefootbindingwaspracticed.[238] InJewishRabbinicliterature,therabbisconsideredsmallfeettobetheidealtypeoffeetforwomen.[171] Hair[edit] Menhavebeenfoundtopreferlong-hairedwomen.[62][239][240]Anevolutionarypsychologyexplanationforthisisthatmalnutritionanddeficienciesinmineralsandvitaminscauseslossofhairorhairchanges.Hairthereforeindicateshealthandnutritionduringthelast2–3years.Lustroushairisalsooftenacross-culturalpreference.[201] AcomponentofthefemalebeautyidealinPersianliteratureisforwomentohaveblackhair,[169]whichwasalsopreferredinArabiansocietyintheMiddleAges.[170]InMiddleEnglishliterature,curlyhairisanecessarycomponentofabeautifulwoman.[111] Movementpatterns[edit] Thewayanindividualmovescanindicatehealthandevenageandinfluenceattractiveness.[201]Astudyreflectingtheviewsof700individualsandthatinvolvedanimatedrepresentationsofpeoplewalking,foundthatthephysicalattractivenessofwomenincreasedbyabout50percentwhentheywalkedwithahipsway.Similarly,theperceivedattractivenessofmalesdoubledwhentheymovedwithaswaggerintheirshoulders.[241] Fertility-drivenattractiveness[edit] Therearesomesubtlechangesinwomen'sperceivedattractivenessacrossthemenstrualcycle.Duringtheirmostfertilephase,wecanobservesomechangesinwomen'sbehaviorandphysiology.AstudyconductedbyG.Miller(2007)examinedtheamountoftipearningsbylapdancersacrossthemenstrualcycle.HefoundthatdancersreceivednearlyUS$15morewhentheywerenearovulationthanduringtherestofthemonth.Thissuggeststhatwomeneitheraremoreattractiveduringovulationphase,ortheyexperienceasignificantchangeintheirbehavior.[242]Someotherstudieshavefoundthattherearesubtledifferencesinwomen'sfaceswhenintheirfertilephase.BobstandLobmaier(2012)created20prototypedphotographs,someofafemaleduringovulationandsomeduringthelutealphase.Menwereaskedtochoosethemoreattractive,themorecaringandthemoreflirtatiousfaces.Theyfoundasignificantpreferenceforthefollicularphase(ovulation).Thissuggeststhatsubtleshapedifferencesinfacesoccurringduringthefemale'sovulationphasearesufficienttoattractmenmore.[243]Thisideaissupportedbyanotherstudy,whereasimilarexperimentwasdone.Menandwomenhadtojudgephotographsofwomen'sfacestakenduringtheirfertilephase.Theywereallratedmoreattractivethanduringnon-fertilephase.Theyaresomesubtlevisiblecuestoovulationinwomen'sfaces,andtheyareperceivedasmoreattractive,leadingtotheideathatitcouldbeanadaptivemechanismtoraiseafemale'smatevalueatthatspecifictime(whenprobabilityofconceptionisatitshighest).[242] Women'sattractiveness,asperceivedbymenandwomen,slightlydiffersacrosshermenstrualcycle,beingatpeakwhensheisinherovulationphase.Jonesetal.(2008),focusedonwomen'spreferencesformasculinity,apparenthealthandself-resemblanceandfoundthatitvariesacrossthecycle.Theyexplainedthatthefunctionoftheeffectsofmenstrualcyclephaseonpreferencesforapparenthealthandself-resemblanceinfacesistoincreasethelikelihoodofpregnancy.[244] Similarly,femalepreferthescentofsymmetricalmenandmasculinefacesduringfertilephasesaswellasstereotypicalmaledisplayssuchassocialpresence,anddirectintrasexualcompetitiveness.[245] Duringthefollicularphase(fertile),femalesprefermoremale'straits(testosteronedependenttraitssuchasfaceshape)thanwheninnon-fertilephase.Thosefindingshavebeenfoundinthevoice,showingthatfemales'preferencesformoremasculinevoicesoverfemininevoicesincreasethefertilephaseofthemenstrualcycle.[246] Butnotonlyfemales'preferencesvaryacrosscycle,theirbehavioursaswell.Effectively,menresponddifferentlytofemaleswhentheyareonovulatorycycle,[242]becausefemalesactdifferently.Womenintheovulatoryphaseareflirtierwithmalesshowinggeneticfitnessmarkersthaninlowfertilephase.[247]Ithasbeenshowninsomestudiesthatwomenhighinestrogenaregenerallyperceivedtobemoreattractivethanwomenwithlowlevelsofestrogen,basedonwomennotwearingmake-up.Highestrogenlevelwomenmayalsobeviewedashealthierortohaveamorefeminineface.[248] Similarly,astudyinvestigatedthecapacityofwomentoselecthighqualitymalesbasedontheirfacialattractiveness.Theyfoundthatfacialattractivenesscorrelatedwithsemenquality(good,normal,orbaddependingonspermmorphologyandmotility).Themoreattractiveaman'sfaceis,linkedtohisspermbeingofbetterquality.[249] Sexualornamentation[edit] Sexualornamentsareseeninmanyorganisms;inhumans,femaleshavesexualornamentationintheformofbreastsandbuttocks.Thephysicalattractiontosexualornamentsisassociatedwithgynoidfat,asopposedtoandroidfat,whichisconsideredunattractive.[250]Inhumanfemales,proximatecausesofthedevelopmentofsexualornamentsareassociatedwiththepredominanceofestrogeninpuberty.Theactivationofestrogenreceptorsaroundthefemaleskeletaltissuecausesgynoidfattobedepositedinthebreasts,buttocks,hipsandthighs,producinganoveralltypicalfemalebodyshape.[251]Specifically,femalebreastsareconsideredmoreattractivewhensymmetrical,ratherthanasymmetrical,[252]asthisisthoughttoreflectgooddevelopmentalstability.[253] Sexualornamentsareconsideredattractivefeaturesastheyarethoughttoindicatehighmatevalue,fertility,[254]andtheabilitytoprovidegoodcaretooffspring.Theyaresexuallyselectedtraitspresentforthepurposeofhonestsignallingandcapturingthevisualattentionoftheoppositesex,mostcommonlyassociatedwithfemalescapturingthevisualattentionofmales.Ithasbeenproposedthattheseornamentshaveevolvedinordertoadvertisepersonalqualityandreproductivevalue.[255]Honestsignallingwithsexualornamentsisassociatedwithultimatecausationoftheseevolvedtraits.Theevolutionoftheseornamentsisalsoassociatedwithfemale-femalecompetitioninordertogainmaterialbenefitsprovidedbyresourcefulandhighstatusmales.[256]Inhumans,oncethesesexualornamentsdevelop,theyarepermanent.Itisthoughtthatthisisassociatedwiththelong-termpairbondinghumansengagein;humanfemalesengageinextendedsexualactivityoutsideoftheirfertileperiod.[257]Thisrelatestoanotherultimatecauseofsexualornamentswithfunctioninobtainingnon-geneticmaterialbenefitsfrommales.Inotheranimalspecies,evenotherprimatespecies,theseadvertisementsofreproductivevaluearenotpermanent.Usually,itisthepointatwhichthefemaleisathermostfertile,shedisplayssexualswellings.[258] Adolescenceistheperiodoftimewherebyhumansexperiencepuberty,andexperienceanatomicalchangestotheirbodiesthroughtheincreaseofsexhormonesreleasedinthebody.Adolescentexaggerationistheperiodoftimeatwhichsexualornamentsaremaximised,andpeakgynoidfatcontentisreached.[256]Inhumanfemales,themeanageforthisisapproximately16years.Femalebreastsdevelopatthisstagenotonlytoprepareforreproduction,butalsoduetocompetitionwithotherfemalesindisplayingtheirreproductivevalueandqualitytomales.[256] Neuralcorrelatesofperceivingattractiveness[edit] Moststudiesofthebrainactivationsassociatedwiththeperceptionofattractivenessshowphotographsoffacestotheirparticipantsandletthemoracomparablegroupofpeopleratetheattractivenessofthesefaces.Suchstudiesconsistentlyfindthatactivityincertainpartsoftheorbitofrontalcortexincreaseswithincreasingattractivenessoffaces.[259][260][256][261][262]Thisneuralresponsehasbeeninterpretedasareactionontherewardingnatureofattractiveness,assimilarincreasesinactivationinthemedialorbitofrontalcortexcanbeseeninresponsetosmilingfaces[263]andtostatementsofmorallygoodactions.[256][262]Whilemostofthesestudieshavenotassessedparticipantsofbothgendersorhomosexualindividuals,evidencefromonestudyincludingmaleandfemalehetero-andhomosexualindividualsindicatethatsomeoftheaforementionedincreasesinbrainactivityarerestrictedtoimagesoffacesofthegenderparticipantsfeelsexuallyattractedto.[264] Withregardtobrainactivationrelatedtotheperceptionofattractivebodies,onestudywithheterosexualparticipantssuggeststhatactivityinthenucleusaccumbensandtheanteriorcingulatecortexincreaseswithincreasingattractiveness.Thesamestudyfindsthatforfacesandbodiesalike,themedialpartoftheorbitofrontalcortexrespondswithgreateractivitytobothveryattractiveandveryunattractivepictures.[265] Forbothmenandwomen,thereappeartobeuniversalcriteriaofattractivenessbothwithinandacrossculturesandethnicgroups.[17][266]Whenconsideringlong-termrelationships,somestudieshavefoundthatmenplaceahigheremphasisonphysicalattractivenessinapartnerthanwomendo.[267][268][269][270][271]Ontheotherhand,somestudieshavefoundfewdifferencesbetweenmenandwomenintermsoftheweighttheyplaceonphysicalcharacteristicswhentheyarechoosingpartnersforshort-termrelationships,[272][273][274][275]inparticularwithregardtotheirimplicit,asopposedtoexplicitlyarticulated,preferences.[276]Otherrecentstudiescontinuetofindsexdifferencesforlong-termrelationships.[277][278][279][274]Whilestillvaluingphysicalattractiveness,womentendtoprioritizeaman'sstatusoverhisphysicalattractiveness,whilemenprioritizephysicalattractivenessoverstatus.[280]Thereisalsoonestudysuggestingthatonlymen,notwomen,placegreaterpriorityonbodilycomparedtofacialattractivenesswhenlookingforashort-termascomparedtoalong-termpartner.[281] Bangladeshibrideexemplifyingweddingdaybeauty Someevolutionarypsychologists,includingDavidBuss,havearguedthatthislong-termrelationshipdifferencemaybeaconsequenceofancestralhumanswhoselectedpartnersbasedonsecondarysexualcharacteristics,aswellasgeneralindicatorsoffitnesswhichallowedforgreaterreproductivesuccessasaresultofhigherfertilityinthosepartners,[282]althoughamale'sabilitytoprovideresourcesforoffspringwaslikelysignaledlessbyphysicalfeatures.[269]Itisarguedthatthemostprominentindicatoroffertilityinwomenisyouth,[283][284][285]whilethetraitsinamanwhichenhancereproductivesuccessareproxiesforhisabilitytoaccrueresourcesandprotect.[285] Studieshaveshownthatwomenpaygreaterattentiontophysicaltraitsthantheydodirectlytoearningcapabilityorpotentialtocommit,[286]includingmuscularity,fitnessandmasculinityoffeatures;thelatterpreferencewasobservedtovaryduringawoman'speriod,withwomenpreferringmoremasculinefeaturesduringthelate-follicular(fertile)phaseofthemenstrualcycle.[246][287]Additionally,womenprocessphysicalattractivenessdifferently,payingattentiontobothindividualfeaturesandtheaestheticeffectofthewholeface.[288]A2003studyintheareaconcludedthatheterosexualwomenareaboutequallyarousedwhenviewingmenorwomen.Heterosexualmenwereonlyarousedbywomen.Thisstudyverifiedarousalinthetestsubjectsbyconnectingthemtobrainimagingdevices.[289][290][291][292]Notably,thesamestudyreportedarousalforwomenuponviewinganimalsmating. BonnieAdrian'sbook,FramingtheBride,discussestheemphasisTaiwanesebridesplaceonphysicalattractivenessfortheirweddingphotographs.GlobalizationandwesternidealsofbeautyhavespreadandhavebecomemoreprevalentinAsiansocietieswherebridesgothroughhoursofhairandmakeupto"transformeverydaywomenwiththeirindividualcharacteristicsintogenericlook-alikebeautiesinthreehours'time."Thesebridesgothroughhoursofmakeuptotransformthemselvesintosociallyconstructedbeauty.[293] Accordingtostrategicpluralismtheory,menmayhavecorrespondinglyevolvedtopursuereproductivestrategiesthatarecontingentontheirownphysicalattractiveness.Morephysicallyattractivemenaccruereproductivebenefitsfromspendingmoretimeseekingmultiplematingpartnersandrelativelylesstimeinvestinginoffspring.Incontrast,thereproductiveeffortofphysicallylessattractivemen,whothereforewillnothavethesamematingopportunities,isbetterallocatedeithertoinvestingheavilyinaccruingresources,orinvestingintheirmatesandoffspringandspendingrelativelylesstimeseekingadditionalmates.[294] Facialsimilarityandracialpreferences[edit] Seealso:Sexualracism Studieshavesuggestedthatpeoplearegenerallyattractedtopeoplewholooklikethem,[295]andtheygenerallyevaluatefacesthatexhibitfeaturesoftheirownethnicorracialgroupasbeingmoreattractive.[240]Bothmenandwomenusechildren's"facialresemblance"tothemselvesin"attractivenessjudgments,"withagreaterpercentageofwomeninonestudy(37%n=30)findinghypotheticalchildrenwhosefaceswere"self-morphs"ofthemselvesasmostattractivewhencomparedtomen(30%n=23).[296] Themoresimilarajudgedpersonistowardthejudgingperson,themoretheformerisliked.However,thiseffectcanbereversed.Thismightdependonhowattractivenessisconceptualized:similarmembers—comparedtodissimilarones—oftheoppositesexarejudgedasmorelikableinaprosocialsense.Findingsaremoreambiguouswhenlookingforthedesiring,pleasurerelatedcomponentofattractiveness.[297]Thismightbeinfluencedbythemeasureoneuses(subjectiveratingscandifferfromthewayoneactuallyreacts)andbysituationalfactors:whilemenusuallypreferwomenwhosefaceresemblestheirown,thiseffectcanreverseunderstress,whendissimilarfemalesarepreferred.[298] AstudybyR.E.Hallin2008,whichexamineddeterminationsofphysicalattractivenessbyhavingsubjectslookatthefacesofwomen,foundthatracewassometimesafactorintheseevaluations.[299]In2011,twostudiesfoundevidencethattheethnicityofafaceinfluencedhowattractiveitwasjudgedtobe.[300][301]A2014studybyTsunokai,McGrathandKavanaghbasedondatafromadatingwebsite,theauthorscitedraceasafactorindatingpreferencesbyAsian-Americanmen,bothhomosexualandheterosexual.[302]A2013studyfoundonlyweaksupportfortheviewthatpeoplepreferthefacesofthoseraciallysimilartothemselves.[303]Onestudysuggestsimbalanceininterracialmarriage(whitemale-Asianfemalemarriagesaremorethantwiceascommonasthereverse)maybeattributedtothefactthatAsianpeopleareperceivedasmorefemininethanwhitepeople,[304]andthusthatAsianwomenareperceivedasmoreattractivethanwhitewomen,andAsianmenaslessattractivethanwhitemen.[305]Otherstudiessuggeststhatinter-ethnicandintra-ethnicdifferencesinperceivedfacialmasculinityhasnoimpactonattractiveness,andthatskincolorplaysamoreimportantroleinattractivenessassessmentsofmalefaceswithingroupsbutnotbetweengroupsasahealthsignal.[306] Groupattractivenesseffect[edit] Thegroupattractivenesseffectiswhereagroup'soverallattractivenessratingishigherthanthemeanofeachindividuals'attractivenessrating.Thisoccursbecausepeopleselectivelyattendtothemostattractivegroupmembers[307]andthustheygetthemostattention.Menselectivelyattendtoattractivepeoplemorethanwomen,ithasbeensuggestedthatthiscouldbebecausemenarelessinvestedintheiroffspring,sotheyarelesschoosywhenitcomestosexualpartners,andthereforetheyaremoreeasilyattracted.Asaresultofselectiveattention,peopleendupgivingagroupratingwhichisbiasedastheratingfocusesmainlyontheattractivemembersandignoresthelessattractivemembers.Sotheoverallattractivenessratingisskewedtowardsmoreattractive.Thegroupattractivenesseffectwasinvestigatedinastudywhichgotparticipantstoratethephysicalattractivenessofagroupoffemalesasawhole,individuallyinagroup,andindividuallyontheirown.[308]Participantswereaskedtogivearatingof1–7,with1beingveryunattractiveand7beingveryattractive.Thegroupattractivenesseffecthasbeenreplicatedwithmalesasthemaingroupandalsowithagroupofbothmalesandfemales.ThiseffectmaynotbedemonstratedacrossallculturesbecausethesampleonlycontainedDutchuniversitystudents. Socialeffects[edit] Perceptionsofphysicalattractivenesscontributetogeneralizedassumptionsbasedonthoseattractions.Individualsassumethatwhensomeoneisbeautiful,thentheyhavemanyotherpositiveattributesthatmaketheattractivepersonmorelikeable.[16]Thisisreferredtoasthehaloeffect,alsoknownasthe'beautiful-is-good'effect.[16]Acrosscultures,whatisbeautifulisassumedtobegood;attractivepeopleareassumedtobemoreextroverted,popular,andhappy.Thiscouldleadtoaself-fulfillingprophecy,as,fromayoungage,attractivepeoplereceivemoreattentionthathelpsthemdevelopthesecharacteristics.[309][310]Inonestudy,beautifulpeoplewerefoundtobegenerallyhappierthanlessbeautifulorplainpeople,perhapsbecausetheseoutgoingpersonalitytraitsarelinkedtohappiness,orperhapsbecausebeautyledtoincreasedeconomicbenefitswhichpartiallyexplainedtheincreasedhappiness.[167]Inanotherstudytestingfirstimpressionsin56femaleand17maleparticipantsatUniversityofBritishColumbia,personalitytraitsofphysicallyattractivepeoplewereidentifiedmorepositivelyandmoreaccuratelythanthosewhowerelessphysicallyattractive.Itwasexplainedthatpeoplepaycloserattentiontothosetheyfindphysicallybeautifulorattractive,andthusperceivingattractiveindividualswithgreaterdistinctiveaccuracy.Thestudybelievesthisaccuracytobesubjectivetotheeyeofthebeholder.[311]RecentresultsfromtheWisconsinLongitudinalStudyconfirmedthepositivelinkbetweenpsychologicalwell-beingandattractiveness(higherfacialattractiveness,lowerBMI)andalsofoundthecomplementarynegativeassociationwithdistress/depression.Eventhoughconnectionsandconfoundswithothervariablescouldnotbeexcluded,theeffectsofattractivenessinthisstudywerethesamesizeastheonesforotherdemographicvariables.[312] Indevelopedwesternsocieties,womentendtobejudgedfortheirphysicalappearanceovertheirotherqualitiesandthepressuretoengageinbeautyworkismuchhigherforwomenthanmen.Beautyworkisdefinedasvariousbeauty"practicesindividualsperformonthemselvesorotherstoelicitcertainbenefitsfromaspecificsocialhierarchy."[313]Being"beautiful"hasindividual,socialandinstitutionalrewards.[313]Althoughmarketershavestartedtotargetthe"metro-sexual"maleandproducehygieneandbeautyproductsgearedtowardsmen,theexpectationsplacedonthemislessthanwomen[314]Thetimeandmoneyrequiredforamantoachievethesamewell-groomedappearanceismuchlower.Eveninareasthatmenalsofacepressuretoperformbeautywork,suchahaircuts/styling,thepricesdiscrepancyforproductsandservicesareskewed.Thisphenomenoniscalledthe"pinktax."[315][316] However,attractivenessvariesbysociety;inancientChinafootbindingwaspracticedbyconfiningyounggirls'feetintightlyboundshoestopreventthefeetfromgrowingtonormalsizecausingthewomentohaveanattractive"lotusgait".InEngland,womenusedtowearcorsetsthatseverelyconstrictedtheirbreathinginordertoachieveavisualeffectofanexaggeratedlylowwaist-to-hipratio. Peoplemakejudgmentsofphysicalattractivenessbasedonwhattheysee,butalsoonwhattheyknowabouttheperson.Specifically,perceptionsofbeautyaremalleablesuchthatinformationabouttheperson'spersonalitytraitscaninfluenceone'sassessmentofanotherperson'sphysicalbeauty.A2007studyhadparticipantsfirstratepicturesforattractiveness.Afterdoingdistractingmathproblems,participantssawthepicturesagain,butwithinformationabouttheperson'spersonality.Whenparticipantslearnedthatapersonhadpositivepersonalitycharacteristics(e.g.,smart,funny,kind),thatpersonwasseenasmorephysicallyattractive.[317]Conversely,apersonwithnegativepersonalitycharacteristics(e.g.,materialistic,rude,untrustworthy)wasseenaslessphysicallyattractive.Thiswastrueforbothfemalesandmales. Physicalattractivenesscanhavevarioussocialeffects.Forinstance,humanstendtoself-organizeintocoupleswherebothpartieshavelooselysimilarattractivenesslevelsasjudgedbythirdparties.[318][319][320]AsurveyconductedbyLondonGuildhallUniversityof11,000peopleshowedthatthosewhosubjectivelydescribethemselvesasphysicallyattractiveearnmoreincomethanotherswhowoulddescribethemselvesaslessattractive.[24]Peoplewhodescribedthemselvesaslessattractiveearned,onaverage,13%lessthanthosewhodescribedthemselvesasmoreattractive,whilethepenaltyforbeingoverweightwasaround5%.Accordingtofurtherresearchdoneonthecorrelationbetweenlooksandearningsinmen,thepunishmentforunattractivenessisgreaterthanthebenefitsofbeingattractive.However,inwomenthepunishmentisfoundtobeequaltothebenefits.[321]Anotherstudysuggeststhatmorephysicallyattractivepeoplearesignificantlymorelikelyonaveragetoearnconsiderablyhigherwages.Differencesinincomeduetoattractivenesswasmuchmorepronouncedformenratherthanwomen,andheldtrueforallrangesofincome.[322]IntheUStheearningsdisparitiesalongtheattractivenesscontinuum(netofcontrols)aresimilarorgreaterthantheblack-whitedisparity.[323]Astudyfrom2020foundthatsocialscientistswhoarejudgedasbeingmoreattractivereceivehigherpublicspeakingfeesthanlessattractivesocialscientists,whereasfornaturalscientists,relativeunattractivenessisacomparativeadvantageintermsofpublicspeakingfees.[324] Itisimportanttonotethatotherfactorssuchasself-confidencemayexplainorinfluencethesefindingsastheyarebasedonself-reportedattractivenessasopposedtoanysortofobjectivecriteria;however,asone'sself-confidenceandself-esteemarelargelylearnedfromhowoneisregardedbyhis/herpeerswhilematuring,eventheseconsiderationswouldsuggestasignificantroleforphysicalappearance.Onewriterspeculatedthat"thedistresscreatedinwomenbythespreadofunattainableidealsoffemalebeauty"mightpossiblybelinkedtoincreasingincidenceofdepression.[325] Manyhaveassertedthatcertainadvantagestendtocometothosewhoareperceivedasbeingmoreattractive,includingtheabilitytogetbetterjobsandpromotions;receivingbettertreatmentfromauthoritiesandthelegalsystem;havingmorechoicesinromanticorplatonicpartnersand,therefore,morepowerinrelationships;andmarryingintofamilieswithmoremoney.[28][167][309][310][326]Thosewhoareattractivearetreatedandjudgedmorepositivelythanthosewhoareconsideredunattractive,evenbythosewhoknowthem.Also,attractiveindividualsbehavemorepositivelythanthosewhoareunattractive.[327]Onestudyfoundthatteacherstendtoexpectthatchildrenwhoareattractivearemoreintelligent,andaremorelikelytoprogressfurtherinschool.Theyalsoconsiderthesestudentstobemorepopular.[328]Voterschoosepoliticalcandidateswhoaremoreattractiveoverthosewhoarelessattractive.[329]Menandwomenusephysicalattractivenessasameasureofhow"good"anotherpersonis.[330]In1946,SolomanAschcoinedtheImplicitPersonalityTheory,meaningthatthepresenceofonetraittendstoimplytheexistenceofothertraits.Thisisalsoknownasthehaloeffect.Researchsuggeststhatthosewhoarephysicallyattractivearethoughttohavemoresociallydesirablepersonalitiesandleadbetterlivesingeneral.[11]Thisisalsoknownasthe"what-is-beautiful-is-goodeffect"orphysicalattractivenessstereotype.Discriminationagainstorprejudicetowardsothersbasedontheirappearanceissometimesreferredtoaslookism(prejudiceordiscriminationbasedonphysicalappearanceandespeciallyphysicalappearancebelievedtofallshortofsocietalnotionsofbeauty).[331] Someresearchersconcludethatlittledifferenceexistsbetweenmenandwomenintermsofsexualbehavior.[268][332]Otherresearchersdisagree.[333]Symmetricalmenandwomenhaveatendencytobegintohavesexualintercourseatanearlierage,tohavemoresexualpartners,toengageinawidervarietyofsexualactivities,andtohavemoreone-nightstands.Theyarealsopronetoinfidelityandaremorelikelytohaveopenrelationships.[44]Additionally,theyhavethemostreproductivesuccess.Therefore,theirphysicalcharacteristicsaremostlikelytobeinheritedbyfuturegenerations.[334][335][336][337] Concernforimprovingphysicalattractivenesshasledmanypersonstoconsideralternativessuchascosmeticsurgery.Ithasledscientistsworkingwithrelateddisciplinessuchascomputerimagingandmathematicstoconductresearchtosuggestwaystosurgicallyalterthedistancesbetweenfacialfeaturesinordertomakeafaceconformmorecloselytothe"agreed-uponstandardsofattractiveness"ofanidealfacebyusingalgorithmstosuggestanalternativewhichstillresemblesthecurrentface.[26]Oneresearchstudyfoundthatcosmeticsurgeryasawayto"boostearnings"was"notprofitableinamonetarysense."[167]Someresearchshowsthatphysicalattractivenesshasamarginaleffectonhappiness.[338] Misconceptions[edit] TheGoldenRatio[edit] TheGoldenRatio,alsoknownasTheGoldenProportion,wasconsideredtheperfectmeasurementofharmony,beautyandproportioninAncientGreece.Ideasfromthistheoryhaveheldupsuchasfacialsymmetry,facialproportion,sexualdimorphismandfacialaverageness.ResearchersMohammadKhursheedAlam,NorFaridMohdNoor,RehanaBasri,TanFoYewandTayHuiWenconductedastudywherethetestedif"TheIdealFace"playedanyfactorinfacialattractivenessinvariousethnicgroups.Atotalof286peopleaged18to25participatedinthissurvey,including100Malay(50male50female),100MalaysianChinese(50male50female),and86MalaysianIndian(36male50female).Thisstudyexcludedpatientsofmixedrace,thosewithcraniofacialdeformities,andthosewhohadpreviouslyreceivedorthodontictreatmentorhadfacesurgery.Beforethestudybegan,thesubjectsweregiventheopportunitytogivetheirinformedconsent.TheresultsoverallconcludedthattheGoldenRatiohadnosignificantassociationwithphysicalattractiveness.[339][340] Seealso[edit] Adornment –Accessoryorornamentworntoenhancethebeautyorstatusofthewearer Bodyproportions –Proportionsofthehumanbodyinart Artisticcanonsofbodyproportions –Criteriausedinformalfigurativeart Bodyshape –Generalshapeofahumanbody Malebodyshape –Malemusculo-skeletalcharacteristics Femalebodyshape –Cumulativeproductofthehumanfemaleskeletalstructureanddistributionofmuscleandfat Circassianbeauties Culturalviewsonthenavel –Normsandtaboosonnavelexposure Femininebeautyideal –Sociallyconstructednorms TheHonestBodyProject –Collectionofpicturesofrealwomen Humanphysicalappearance –Look,outwardphenotype Koinophilia –Hypothesisonnormativemateselection Matchinghypothesis –Mateselectionbysocialdesirability Ovulatoryshifthypothesis –Hypothesisthatfemalematingbehaviorchangesthroughoutthemenstrualcycle Sexualattraction –Attractiononthebasisofsexualdesire Sexualcapital –Socialvaluefromsexualattractiveness Sexualfetishism –Sexualarousalapersonreceivesfromanobjectorsituation Notes[edit] ^The"sittingbodyratio"(SBR)isalsoquoted,wherethetrunkismeasuredwithsubjectsittingonaflattable,andtheleg-lengthdeterminedbysubtractionfromstandingheight.Thisisalmostthesameasdistancefromtheperineumbutwithouttheneedtotouchanintimatearea. References[edit] ^"People:JustDeserts".Time.May28,1945.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonAugust11,2009.RetrievedAugust5,2011...."themostperfectall-overbeautyofalltime."Runner-up:theVenusdeMilo. ^"SaysVenusdeMilowasnotaFlapper;OsteopathSaysSheWasNeurasthenic,asHerStomachWasNotinProperPlace"(PDF).TheNewYorkTimes.April29,1922.RetrievedAugust5,2011.VenusdeMilo...Thatladyofrenownedbeauty... ^CBSNewsStaff(August5,2011)."Venus".CBSNews.RetrievedAugust5,2011.TheclassicalvisionofbeautyexemplifiedinGreekart,suchasthe2ndcenturyB.C.VenusdeMilo(a.k.a.AphroditeofMilos),wasanidealcarriedthroughmillennia,layingthebasisformuchofWesternart'sdepictionsofthehumanform. ^KousserR(2005)."CreatingthePast:TheVénusdeMiloandtheHellenisticReceptionofClassicalGreece".AmericanJournalofArchaeology.109(2):227–50.doi:10.3764/aja.109.2.227.S2CID 36871977. ^WilkinsonP(1998).IllustratedDictionaryofMythology.ISBN 9780789434135. ^DayJ(2004)."DoestheOldTestamentRefertoSacredProstitutionandDidItActualExistinAncientIsrael?".InMcCarthyC,HealeyJF(eds.).BiblicalandNearEasternEssays:StudiesinHonourofKevinJ.Cathcart.CromwellPress.pp. 2–21.ISBN 978-0-8264-6690-7. ^SinghNK(1997).DivineProstitution.NewDelhi:APHPublishing.pp. 4–6.ISBN 978-81-7024-821-7. ^PerkinsD(2013).EncyclopediaofChina:HistoryandCulture.Routledge.p. 581.ISBN 978-1135935627. ^GrammerK,ThornhillR(October1994)."Human(Homosapiens)facialattractivenessandsexualselection:theroleofsymmetryandaverageness".JournalofComparativePsychology.108(3):233–42.doi:10.1037/0735-7036.108.3.233.PMID 7924253.RetrievedMay4,2019. ^Zeigler-HillV,LMWellingL,ShackelfordTK(2015).EvolutionaryPerspectivesonSocialPsychology.UnitedStates:SpringerScience+BusinessMedia.p. 329.ISBN 978-3-319-12697-5....why,despitebroadagreement,weseeawidevarietyofpersonalpreferences. ^abDionK,BerscheidE,WalsterE(December1972)."Whatisbeautifulisgood".JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology.24(3):285–90.CiteSeerX 10.1.1.521.9955.doi:10.1037/h0033731.PMID 4655540. ^abKanazawaS(2011)."Intelligenceandphysicalattractiveness".Intelligence.39(1):7–14.doi:10.1016/j.intell.2010.11.003. ^StephenID,TanKW(2015)."Healthybody,healthyface?Evolutionaryapproachestohealthperception.".InSheppardE,HaqueS(eds.).CultureandCognition:ACollectionofCriticalEssays.PeterLangInternationalPublishers. ^BrownWM,PriceME,KangJ,PoundN,ZhaoY,YuH(September2008)."Fluctuatingasymmetryandpreferencesforsex-typicalbodilycharacteristics".ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciencesoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica.105(35):12938–43.Bibcode:2008PNAS..10512938B.doi:10.1073/pnas.0710420105.PMC 2529114.PMID 18711125. ^StephenID,HiewV,CoetzeeV,TiddemanBP,PerrettDI(2017)."FacialShapeAnalysisIdentifiesValidCuestoAspectsofPhysiologicalHealthinCaucasian,Asian,andAfricanPopulations".FrontiersinPsychology.8:1883.doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01883.PMC 5670498.PMID 29163270. ^abcBarelds-DijkstraP,BareldsDP(March2008)."Positiveillusionsaboutone'spartner'sphysicalattractiveness".BodyImage.5(1):99–108.doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2007.07.004.PMID 18405868. ^abBriscoeJ(January17,2004)."Haven'tIseenyousomewherebefore?".TheGuardian.London.RetrievedJuly15,2011.Evolutionarypsychologistsclaimthereisanunderlyingstandardscriptforbeauty–afoundationforwhatwefindappealingthattranscendscultureandethnicity.Therearevariousabsolutes.Forinstance,tojudgesomeonebeautiful,theeyerequiressymmetry ^Fisher,MaryanneL.(2017).TheOxfordHandbookofWomenandCompetition.OxfordUniversityPress.p. 603.ISBN 978-0-19-937639-1. ^abNettleD(September2002)."Women'sheight,reproductivesuccessandtheevolutionofsexualdimorphisminmodernhumans"(PDF).Proceedings.BiologicalSciences.269(1503):1919–23.doi:10.1098/rspb.2002.2111.PMC 1691114.PMID 12350254. ^abcGlassenbergAN,FeinbergDR,JonesBC,LittleAC,DebruineLM(December2010)."Sex-dimorphicfaceshapepreferenceinheterosexualandhomosexualmenandwomen".ArchivesofSexualBehavior.39(6):1289–96.doi:10.1007/s10508-009-9559-6.PMID 19830539.S2CID 25066289. ^abcPerrettDI,LeeKJ,Penton-VoakI,RowlandD,YoshikawaS,BurtDM,HenziSP,CastlesDL,AkamatsuS(August1998)."Effectsofsexualdimorphismonfacialattractiveness".Nature.394(6696):884–87.Bibcode:1998Natur.394..884P.doi:10.1038/29772.PMID 9732869.S2CID 204999982. ^SellA,LukazsweskiAW,TownsleyM(December2017)."Cuesofupperbodystrengthaccountformostofthevarianceinmen'sbodilyattractiveness".Proceedings.BiologicalSciences.284(1869):20171819.doi:10.1098/rspb.2017.1819.PMC 5745404.PMID 29237852. ^MautzBS,WongBB,PetersRA,JennionsMD(April2013)."Penissizeinteractswithbodyshapeandheighttoinfluencemaleattractiveness".ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciencesoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica.110(17):6925–30.Bibcode:2013PNAS..110.6925M.doi:10.1073/pnas.1219361110.PMC 3637716.PMID 23569234. ^abLorenzK(2005)."DoPrettyPeopleEarnMore?".www.CNN.com. ^DammannG(August20,2008)."Rulesofattraction".TheGuardian.London.RetrievedJuly15,2011.scientistsfromBrunelUniversityhaverevealedthatphysicalattractionisalldowntobodilysymmetry ^abcKershawS(October8,2008)."TheSumofYourFacialParts".TheNewYorkTimes.RetrievedJuly15,2011.Scientists...trainedacomputertodetermine,foreachindividualface,themostattractivesetofdistancesandthenchoosetheidealclosesttotheoriginalface.... ^abBerriDJ(September16,2008)."DoPretty-BoyQuarterbacksMakeMoreMoney?".TheNewYorkTimes.RetrievedJuly15,2011.Research,though,hasindicatedthatwhatwethinkofasfacialattractivenessisreallyjustfacialsymmetry ^abWillettE(October29,2008)."Aperson'sfacecansayalot:Helen'sfaceissaidtohavelaunchedathousandships,whileMedusa'scouldturnmentostone.Andeventodaywetalkaboutindividualswith'afacethatcanstopaclock.'".TheLeader-Post(Regina).ArchivedfromtheoriginalonNovember10,2012.RetrievedJuly15,2011."peoplepreferentiallymatewith,date,associatewith,employ,andevenvoteforphysicallyattractiveindividuals."...Symmetryisonetraitwefindattractive(butonlyifthefaceisright-sideup:yoursymmetricfacewill,alas,donothingtohelpyouattractamateifyouconstantlystandonyourhead. ^abMurphyC(December4,2003)."Intheeyeofthebeholder?".BBCNews.RetrievedJuly15,2011.Arthistorians,anthropologistsandhumanpsychologistsingeneralagreethatitisthesymmetryofaface,itsperfectproportion,orindeeditsaverageness–wherenofeaturestandsout–thathasconsistentlydowntheagesbeendeemedattractive.... ^BurkemanO(April24,2010)."Thiscolumnwillchangeyourlife:Thebeautyinimperfection".TheGuardian.London.RetrievedDecember27,2012.Absoluteflawlessness,it'slongbeenobserved,isdisturbing.Itoffersnopointofconnection,andmayhelpexplainthe"uncannyvalley"effect,wherealmost-lifelikerobotstriggerrevulsioninhumans.... ^abMcKeenS(February10,2006)."Abeautyfixplumpsuppsycheandoverallhealth".TheEdmontonJournal.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonNovember10,2012.RetrievedJuly15,2011.Evolutiontaughtustolustaftersymmetry–anicelybalancedbodyandface–becauseasymmetrysignalspastillnessorinjury.Wethereforedefinebeautyquiteelegantly,rightdowntothemostidealratioofhipstobreastsandupperliptolowerlip.Singhsaysonestudyshowedthatpeoplewereabletogaugebeautyatasubliminallevel,whenshownpicturesforamereone-hundredthofasecond.Anotherstudyshowedbabiespreferprettyfaces. ^PerrinFA(June1921)."PhysicalAttractivenessandRepulsiveness".JournalofExperimentalPsychology.4(3):203–17.doi:10.1037/h0071949. ^GrammerK,SainaniKL(October2015)."Q&A:KarlGrammer.Innateattractions".Nature.526(7572):S11.doi:10.1038/526S11a.PMID 26444367. ^Brewis,AlexandraA.(2011).Obesity:CulturalandBioculturalPerspectives.NewBrunswick,NewJersey&London:RutgersUniversityPress.p.132.GoogleBookslink. ^Sforza,Chiarella;Laino,Alberto;D'Alessio,Raoul;Grandi,Gaia;Tartaglia,GianlucaMartino;Ferrario,VirgilioFerruccio(2008)."Soft-TissueFacialCharacteristicsofAttractiveandNormalAdolescentBoysandGirls"(PDF).AngleOrthodontist.78(5):799–807.doi:10.2319/091207-431.1.PMID 18298221. ^Burriss,RobertP.;Rowland,HannahM.;Little,AnthonyC.(January1,2009)."Facialscarringenhancesmen'sattractivenessforshort-termrelationships".PersonalityandIndividualDifferences.46(2):213–17.doi:10.1016/j.paid.2008.09.029–viawww.sciencedirect.com. ^abFengC(December6,2002)."LookingGood:ThePsychologyandBiologyofBeauty".StanfordUniversity.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonJanuary13,2012.RetrievedJanuary20,2012. ^abPenkeL,BatesTC,GowAJ,PattieA,StarrJM,JonesBC,PerrettDI,DearyIJ(November2009)."Symmetricfacesareasignofsuccessfulcognitiveaging".EvolutionandHumanBehavior.30(6):429–37.doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2009.06.001. "Faceshapecluetomentaldecline".BBCNews.August9,2009. ^RadfordT(August17,2005)."Howwomendreamofsymmetricalmen".TheGuardian.London.RetrievedJanuary19,2010.Theresearchonceagainconfirmsahypothesisthatbeautyisnotmerelyintheeyeofthebeholder:itisanindicatorofgeneticfitness.Fromachoiceofcomputer-generatedfaces,volunteersroutinelychoosethemostsymmetricalasthemostattractive.Physicalsymmetryisinterpretedasasignofgoodinheritance.Andtherefore,thetheorygoes,womeninapositiontoconceivewouldbemoreattractedtosomeonemorelikelytoengenderthehealthiestoffspring. ^ThornhillR,GangestadSW,ComerR(1995)."Humanfemaleorgasmandmatefluctuatingasymmetry".AnimalBehaviour.50(6):1601–15.doi:10.1016/0003-3472(95)80014-X.S2CID 44103857. ^LittleAC,JonesBC,WaittC,TiddemanBP,FeinbergDR,PerrettDI,ApicellaCL,MarloweFW(May2008).ReimchenT(ed.)."Symmetryisrelatedtosexualdimorphisminfaces:dataacrosscultureandspecies".PLOSONE.3(5):e2106.Bibcode:2008PLoSO...3.2106L.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0002106.PMC 2329856.PMID 18461131. ^ZebrowitzL,RhodesG(2004)."Sensitivityto"BadGenes"andtheAnomalousFaceOvergeneralizationEffect:CueValidity,CuteUtilization,andAccuracyinJudgingIntelligenceandHealth"(PDF).JournalofNonverbalBehavior.28(3):167–85.doi:10.1023/B:JONB.0000039648.30935.1b.S2CID 15981563.Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)onApril6,2019.RetrievedMarch4,2012. ^abLittleAC,BurtDM,Penton-VoakIS,PerrettDI(January2001)."Self-perceivedattractivenessinfluenceshumanfemalepreferencesforsexualdimorphismandsymmetryinmalefaces".Proceedings.BiologicalSciences.268(1462):39–44.doi:10.1098/rspb.2000.1327.PMC 1087598.PMID 12123296. ^abEtcoffN(2000).SurvivalofthePrettiest:TheScienceofBeauty.pp. 50–53,185–87.ISBN 9780385479424. ^HaseltonMG,GangestadSW(April2006)."Conditionalexpressionofwomen'sdesiresandmen'smateguardingacrosstheovulatorycycle".HormonesandBehavior.49(4):509–18.doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2005.10.006.PMID 16403409.S2CID 7065777. ^RikowskiA,GrammerK(May1999)."Humanbodyodour,symmetryandattractiveness".Proceedings.BiologicalSciences.266(1422):869–74.doi:10.1098/rspb.1999.0717.PMC 1689917.PMID 10380676. ^abGangestadSW,ThornhillR(May1998)."Menstrualcyclevariationinwomen'spreferencesforthescentofsymmetricalmen".Proceedings.BiologicalSciences.265(1399):927–33.doi:10.1098/rspb.1998.0380.PMC 1689051.PMID 9633114. ^ZunigaA,StevensonRJ,MahmutMK,StephenID(January2017)."Dietqualityandtheattractivenessofmalebodyodor".EvolutionandHumanBehavior.38(1):136–43.doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2016.08.002. ^"Thelawsofsexualattraction".CNN.April13,2009.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonMarch9,2012.RetrievedJuly25,2011....whenwomenareovulating,theyproducecopulins,ascentthatattractsmen.... ^ab"GoogleScienceFairsemi-finalist:IcantasteyourDNA".TheGuardian.London.July25,2011.RetrievedJuly25,2011.theMajorHistocompatibilityComplex(MHC)isalargegenefamilyfoundinmostvertebrates.... ^abKhanR(August16,2008)."Takingthepillmightmakeyourbrotherhawt?".DiscoverMagazine.RetrievedJuly25,2011.Previousstudiesinanimalsandhumansshowthatgenesinthemajorhistocompatibilitycomplex(MHC)influenceindividualodoursandthatfemalesoftenpreferodourofMHC-dissimilarmales,perhapstoincreaseoffspringheterozygosityorreduceinbreeding.Womenusingoralhormonalcontraceptiveshavebeenreportedtohavetheoppositepreference,raisingthepossibilitythatoralcontraceptivesalterfemalepreferencetowardsMHCsimilarity,withpossiblefertilitycosts. ^RobertsSC,LittleAC,GoslingLM,PerrettDI,CarterV,JonesBC,Penton-VoakI,PetrieM(May2005)."MHC-heterozygosityandhumanfacialattractiveness".EvolHumBehav.26(3):213–26.doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2004.09.002. ^PennDJ,DamjanovichK,PottsWK(August2002)."MHCheterozygosityconfersaselectiveadvantageagainstmultiple-straininfections".ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciencesoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica.99(17):11260–64.Bibcode:2002PNAS...9911260P.doi:10.1073/pnas.162006499.PMC 123244.PMID 12177415. ^LewisMB(January1,2010)."Whyaremixed-racepeopleperceivedasmoreattractive?".Perception.39(1):136–38.doi:10.1068/p6626.PMID 20301855.S2CID 15582617. ^"TheBiracialAdvantage".PsychologyToday. ^abRudderC(February16,2010)."TheCaseForAnOlderWoman".OkTrendsDatingResearchfromOkCupid.RetrievedApril28,2012. ^AntfolkJ,SaloB,AlankoK,BergenE,CoranderJ,SandnabbaNK,SanttilaP(2015)."Women'sandmen'ssexualpreferencesandactivitieswithrespecttothepartner'sage:evidenceforfemalechoice".Evolution&HumanBehavior.36(1):73–79.doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2014.09.003. ^abWilliamsCA(1999).Romanhomosexuality:ideologiesofmasculinityinclassicalantiquity.USA:OxfordUniversityPress. ^BoydenT,CarrollJS,MaierRA(1984)."SimilarityandAttractioninHomosexualMales:TheEffectsofAgeandMasculinity-Femininity".SexRoles.10(11/12):939–48.doi:10.1007/BF00288516.S2CID 145447590. ^HechterM(2011).SocialNorms.RussellSageFoundation.p. 300. ^BielloD(December5,2007)."WhatistheBestAgeDifferenceforHusbandandWife?".ScientificAmerican. ^abcdeBussD(2003)[1994].TheEvolutionofDesire(second ed.).NewYork:BasicBooks.pp. 51–54.ISBN 978-0-465-07750-2. ^abReitmanV(April26,2004)."Weclicked".LosAngelesTimes.RetrievedApril3,2012. ^abThornhillR,GangestadSW(December1999)."Facialattractiveness".TrendsinCognitiveSciences.3(12):452–60.doi:10.1016/s1364-6613(99)01403-5.PMID 10562724.S2CID 961347. ^YoungJA,CritelliJW,KeithKW(2005)."Maleagepreferencesforshort-termandlong-termmating".Sexualities,Evolution&Gender.7(2):83–93.doi:10.1080/14616660500035090. ^Quinsey,V.L.TheEtiologyofAnomalousSexualPreferencesinMen.Queen'sUniversityDepartmentofPsychology. ^ab"AttractionandRelationships–TheJourneyfromInitialAttachmentstoRomanticLove:RozenbergQuarterly".rozenbergquarterly.com.RetrievedMarch3,2016. ^abBarberN(1995)."Theevolutionarypsychologyofphysicalattractiveness:Sexualselectionandhumanmorphology".EthologyandSociobiology.16(5):395–424.doi:10.1016/0162-3095(95)00068-2. ^VandenBerghePL,FrostP(1986)."Skincolorpreference,sexualdimorphismandsexualselection:acaseofgene-cultureco-evolution?".EthnicandRacialStudies.9:87–118.doi:10.1080/01419870.1986.9993516. ^abcdSwamiV,EinonD,FurnhamA(December2006)."Theleg-to-bodyratioasahumanaestheticcriterion".BodyImage.3(4):317–23.doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2006.08.003.PMID 18089235. ^abThomasM.M.Versluys;RobertA.Foley;WilliamJ.Skylark(May16,2018)."Theinfluenceofleg-to-bodyratio,arm-to-bodyratioandintra-limbratioonmalehumanattractiveness".RoyalSocietyOpenScience.TheRoyalSocietyPublishing.5(5):171790.Bibcode:2018RSOS....571790V.doi:10.1098/rsos.171790.PMC 5990728.PMID 29892373. ^abKiire,S(2016)."EffectofLeg-to-BodyRatioonBodyShapeAttractiveness".ArchivesofSexualBehavior.45(4):901–10.doi:10.1007/s10508-015-0635-9.PMID 26474977.S2CID 40574546. ^SorokowskiaP,PawlowskibB(March2008)."Adaptivepreferencesforleglengthinapotentialpartner".EvolHumBehav.29(2):86–91.doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2007.09.002. ^SorokowskiP(2010)."AttractivenessofLegsLengthinPolandandGreatBritain"(PDF).JHumEcol.31(3):148. ^FrederickDA,Hadji-MichaelM,FurnhamA,SwamiV(January2010)."Theinfluenceofleg-to-bodyratio(LBR)onjudgmentsoffemalephysicalattractiveness:assessmentsofcomputer-generatedimagesvaryinginLBR".BodyImage.7(1):51–55.doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2009.09.001.PMID 19822462. ^abcdeBertaminiM,BennetKM(2009)."Theeffectofleglengthonperceivedattractivenessofsimplifiedstimuli"(PDF).JournalofSocial,Evolutionary,andCulturalPsychology.3(3):233–50.CiteSeerX 10.1.1.163.2823.doi:10.1037/h0099320.Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)onJuly23,2015. ^DrummondMJ,FiliaultSM(2007)."Thelongandtheshortofit:Gaymen'sperceptionsofpenissize".Gay&LesbianIssuesandPsychologyReview.3(2):121–29. ^RettnerR(June5,2014)."ForOneNightStands,GirthMatters".LiveScience.RetrievedDecember15,2014. ^Sanderson,S.K.(2001).TheEvolutionofHumanSociality:ADarwinianConflictPerspectiveUS:Rowman&LittlefieldPublishers,Inc.p.179.ISBN 0-8476-9534-4(alk.paper) ^Jones,Trina(2000).ShadesofBrown:TheLawofSkinColor.DukeLawSchool. ^TyburJM,GangestadSW(December2011)."Matepreferencesandinfectiousdisease:theoreticalconsiderationsandevidenceinhumans".PhilosophicalTransactionsoftheRoyalSocietyofLondon.SeriesB,BiologicalSciences.366(1583):3375–88.doi:10.1098/rstb.2011.0136.PMC 3189358.PMID 22042915. ^StephenID,LawSmithMJ,StirratMR,PerrettDI(December2009)."FacialSkinColorationAffectsPerceivedHealthofHumanFaces".InternationalJournalofPrimatology.30(6):845–57.doi:10.1007/s10764-009-9380-z.PMC 2780675.PMID 19946602. ^StephenID,CoetzeeV,LawSmithM,PerrettDI(2009)."Skinbloodperfusionandoxygenationcolouraffectperceivedhumanhealth".PLOSONE.4(4):e5083.Bibcode:2009PLoSO...4.5083S.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0005083.PMC 2659803.PMID 19337378. ^StephenI,CoetzeeV,PerrettDI(2011)."Carotenoidandmelaninpigmentcolorationaffectperceivedhumanhealth".EvolutionandHumanBehavior.32(3):216–27.doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2010.09.003. ^JonesBC,LittleAC,BurtDM,PerrettDI(2004)."Whenfacialattractivenessisonlyskindeep".Perception.33(5):569–76.doi:10.1068/p3463.PMID 15250662.S2CID 8604033. ^SpielmannMH(1889).TheMagazineofArt.London,Paris,NewYork,Melbourne:CassellandCompanyLimited. ^CunninghanMR,RobertsAR,BarbeeAP,DruenPB(1995).""Theirideasofbeautyare,onthewhole,thesameasours":Consistencyandvariabilityinthecross-culturalperceptionoffemalephysicalattractiveness".JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology.68(2):261–79.doi:10.1037/0022-3514.68.2.261.VandenBergeandFrost(1986)examinedpreferencesforlighterversusdarkerskincolorusing51culturesfromtheHumanRelationsAreaFiles.Ofthosecultures,92%preferredlighterratherthandarkerskincolor,primarilyforwomen. ^VandenBerghePL,FrostP(September13,2010)."Skincolorpreference,sexualdimorphismandsexualselection:Acaseofgenecultureco‐evolution?".EthnicandRacialStudies.9:87–113.doi:10.1080/01419870.1986.9993516.anoverwhelmingcross-culturalpreferenceforlighterskin ^DixsonBJ,DixsonAF,BishopPJ,ParishA(June2010)."Humanphysiqueandsexualattractivenessinmenandwomen:aNewZealand-U.S.comparativestudy".ArchivesofSexualBehavior.39(3):798–806.doi:10.1007/s10508-008-9441-y.PMID 19139985.S2CID 33112678.menexpressedpreferencesforlighterskinnedfemalefiguresinNewZealandandCalifornia ^"TheHeavyCostofLightSkin".BBCNews.April18,2000.RetrievedAugust9,2010. ^abDixsonBJ,DixsonAF,MorganB,AndersonMJ(June2007)."Humanphysiqueandsexualattractiveness:sexualpreferencesofmenandwomeninBakossiland,Cameroon".ArchivesofSexualBehavior.36(3):369–75.doi:10.1007/s10508-006-9093-8.PMID 17136587.S2CID 40115821. ^KleisnerK,KočnarT,TurečekP,StellaD,AkokoRM,TřebickýV,HavlíčekJ(2017)."AfricanandEuropeanperceptionofAfricanfemaleattractiveness".EvolutionandHumanBehavior.38(6):744–55.doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2017.07.002. ^SingerM,BeyerH(2008).KillerCommodities:PublicHealthandtheCorporateProductionofHarm.AltaMiraPress.p. 151.ISBN 978-0-7591-0979-7.Harrisinvestigatedthehistoryoftheparasol...everywhereordinarypeoplewereforbiddentoprotectthemselveswithsuchdevices"pallidskinbecameamarkerofupper-classstatus".Atthebeginningofthe20thcentury,intheUnitedStates,lighter-skinnedpeopleavoidedthesun...Tannedskinwasconsideredlowerclass. ^GellerAC,ColditzG,OliveriaS,EmmonsK,JorgensenC,AwehGN,FrazierAL(June2002)."Useofsunscreen,sunburningrates,andtanningbeduseamongmorethan10000USchildrenandadolescents".Pediatrics.109(6):1009–14.doi:10.1542/peds.109.6.1009.PMID 12042536. ^BroadstockM,BorlandR,GasonR(January1992)."EffectsofSuntanonJudgementsofHealthinessandAttractivenessbyAdolescents".JApplSocPsychol.22(2):157–72.doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1992.tb01527.x. ^LearyMR,JonesJL(September1993)."TheSocialPsychologyofTanningandSunscreenUse:Self-PresentationalMotivesasaPredictorofHealthRisk".JApplSocPsychol.23(17):1390–1406.doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1993.tb01039.x. ^"Tanis'In':StudyFindsLightBrownMoreAttractivethanPaleorDarkSkin".physorg.com.RetrievedJune14,2015. ^FinkB,GrammerK,ThornhillR(March2001)."Human(Homosapiens)facialattractivenessinrelationtoskintextureandcolor".JournalofComparativePsychology.115(1):92–99.doi:10.1037/0735-7036.115.1.92.PMID 11334223. ^FinkB,MattsPJ(April2008)."Theeffectsofskincolourdistributionandtopographycuesontheperceptionoffemalefacialageandhealth".JournaloftheEuropeanAcademyofDermatologyandVenereology.22(4):493–98.doi:10.1111/j.1468-3083.2007.02512.x.PMID 18081752.S2CID 12964209. ^abKościński,Krzysztof(May13,2011)."Determinantsofhandattractiveness–astudyinvolvingdigitallymanipulatedstimuli".Perception.40(6):682–94.doi:10.1068/p6960.PMID 21936297.S2CID 25042722–viaSageJournals. ^abSaino,Nicola;Romano,Maria;Innocenti,Paolo(July2006)."LengthofIndexandRingFingersDifferentiallyInfluenceSexualAttractivenessofMen'sandWomen'sHands".BehavioralEcologyandSociobiology.60(3):447–54.doi:10.1007/s00265-006-0185-1.JSTOR 25063833.S2CID 25043274–viaJSTOR. ^Manning,J.T.;Scutt,D;Wilson,J;Lewis-Jones,DI(November1,1998)."Theratioof2ndto4thdigitlength:apredictorofspermnumbersandconcentrationsoftestosterone,luteinizinghormoneandoestrogen".HumanReproduction.13(11):3000–04.doi:10.1093/humrep/13.11.3000.PMID 9853845–viaOxfordAcademic. ^Kościński,Krzysztof(March–April2012)."Handattractiveness–itsdeterminantsandassociationswithfacialattractiveness".BehavioralEcology.23(2):334–42.doi:10.1093/beheco/arr190–viaOxfordacademic. ^Pierce,C.A.1996;Cunningham,M.R.1990;PawlowskiB,DunbarRI,LipowiczA2000. ^abSearR,MarloweFW(October2009)."Howuniversalarehumanmatechoices?SizedoesnotmatterwhenHadzaforagersarechoosingamate".BiologyLetters.5(5):606–09.doi:10.1098/rsbl.2009.0342.PMC 2781963.PMID 19570778. ^CourtiolA,RaymondM,GodelleB,FerdyJB(August2010)."Matechoiceandhumanstature:homogamyasaunifiedframeworkforunderstandingmatingpreferences".Evolution;InternationalJournalofOrganicEvolution.64(8):2189–203.doi:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2010.00985.x.PMID 20199563.S2CID 4780206. ^"Tallmen'tophusbandstakes'".BBCNews.August14,2002.RetrievedOctober15,2009. ^StulpG,BuunkA,KurzbanR(2013)."Theheightofchoosiness:mutualmatechoiceforstatureresultsinsuboptimalpairformationforbothsexes".AnimalBehaviour.86(1):37–46.doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2013.03.038.hdl:11370/66f4623c-20b8-46a0-9542-04c78c7ec6b5.S2CID 53171152. ^BussD(2003)[1994].TheEvolutionofDesire(second ed.).NewYork:BasicBooks.pp. 38–40.ISBN 978-0-465-07750-2. ^abYee,N.(2002).BeyondTopsandBottomsCorrelationsbetweenSex-RolePreferenceandPhysicalPreferencesforPartnersamongGayMen ^abcdefghCurryWC(1916).TheMiddleEnglishIdealofPersonalBeauty:AsFoundintheMetricalRomances,Chronicles,andLegends,oftheXIII,XIVandXVCenturies.Baltimore:J.H.FurstCompany.pp. 31,75,101–03,107,111–116,118,123. ^abcdeSearR(December2006)."Heightandreproductivesuccess:HowaGambianpopulationcompareswiththewest"(PDF).HumanNature(Hawthorne,N.Y.).17(4):405–18.doi:10.1007/s12110-006-1003-1.PMID 26181610.S2CID 29513777. ^Berger,John(1973).WaysofSeeing.BritishBroadcastingCorporationandPenguinBooks.pp. 44–64. ^"Tallmen'tophusbandstakes'".BBCNews.August14,2002.RetrievedJune14,2015. ^"DoIhavewhatittakestobeamodel?".BritishFashionModelAgentsAssociation. ^Bailey&Gaulin&Agyei&Gladue,J.M.&S&Y&B.A(1994)."Effectsofgenderandsexualorientationonevolutionaryrelevantaspectsofhumanmatingpsychology".JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology.66(6):1081–93.doi:10.1037/0022-3514.66.6.1081.PMID 8046578. ^Penton-VoakIS,PerrettDI(January2000)."Femalepreferenceformalefaceschangescyclically:Furtherevidence".EvolHumBehav.21(1):39–48.doi:10.1016/S1090-5138(99)00033-1. ^RhodesG(2006)."Theevolutionarypsychologyoffacialbeauty".AnnualReviewofPsychology.57(1):199–226.doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.57.102904.190208.PMID 16318594. ^"Women'schoiceofmengoesincycles".BBCNews.June24,1999.RetrievedNovember4,2016. ^DawkinsR(1999).Theselfishgene.Oxford:OxfordUniv.Press.ISBN 978-0-19-286092-7. ^KrugerDJ,FisherM,JoblingI(September2003)."ProperanddarkheroesasDADSandCADS:AlternativematingstrategiesinBritishRomanticliterature".HumanNature.14(3):305–17.doi:10.1007/s12110-003-1008-y.PMID 26190212.S2CID 45846130. ^WangH,HahnAC,FisherCI,DeBruineLM,JonesBC(December2014)."Women'shormonelevelsmodulatethemotivationalsalienceoffacialattractivenessandsexualdimorphism"(PDF).Psychoneuroendocrinology.50:246–51.doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2014.08.022.PMID 25244638.S2CID 1075853. ^FinkB,NeaveN,SeydelH(2007)."Malefacialappearancesignalsphysicalstrengthtowomen".AmericanJournalofHumanBiology.19(1):82–87.doi:10.1002/ajhb.20583.PMID 17160983.S2CID 31618973. ^RhodesG,ChanJ,ZebrowitzLA,SimmonsLW(August2003)."Doessexualdimorphisminhumanfacessignalhealth?".Proceedings.BiologicalSciences.270Suppl1(Suppl1):S93–95.doi:10.1098/rsbl.2003.0023.PMC 1698019.PMID 12952647. ^CellerinoA(2003)."Psychobiologyoffacialattractiveness".JournalofEndocrinologicalInvestigation.26(3Suppl):45–48.PMID 12834020. ^GangestadSW,ThornhillR(July2003)."Facialmasculinityandfluctuatingasymmetry".EvolHumBehav.24(4):231–41.doi:10.1016/S1090-5138(03)00017-5. ^ScottIM,PoundN,StephenID,ClarkAP,Penton-VoakIS(October2010)."Doesmasculinitymatter?Thecontributionofmasculinefaceshapetomaleattractivenessinhumans".PLOSONE.5(10):e13585.Bibcode:2010PLoSO...513585S.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0013585.PMC 2965103.PMID 21048972. ^DeBruineLM,JonesBC,CrawfordJR,WellingLL,LittleAC(August2010)."Thehealthofanationpredictstheirmatepreferences:cross-culturalvariationinwomen'spreferencesformasculinizedmalefaces".Proceedings.BiologicalSciences.277(1692):2405–10.doi:10.1098/rspb.2009.2184.PMC 2894896.PMID 20236978. ^Wen,YiFeng;Wong,HaiMing;Lin,Ruitao;Yin,Guosheng;McGrath,Colman(August6,2015)."Inter-Ethnic/RacialFacialVariations:ASystematicReviewandBayesianMeta-AnalysisofPhotogrammetricStudies".PLoSONE.10(8):e0134525.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0134525.ISSN 1932-6203.PMC 4527668.PMID 26247212. ^LeeAJ,MitchemDG,WrightMJ,MartinNG,KellerMC,ZietschBP(February2014)."Geneticfactorsthatincreasemalefacialmasculinitydecreasefacialattractivenessoffemalerelatives".PsychologicalScience.25(2):476–84.doi:10.1177/0956797613510724.PMC 4205959.PMID 24379153. ^ZhengL,HartTA,ZhengY(October2013)."AttractiontomalefacialmasculinityingaymeninChina:relationshiptointercoursepreferencepositionsandsociosexualbehavior".ArchivesofSexualBehavior.42(7):1223–32.doi:10.1007/s10508-012-0057-x.PMID 23440561.S2CID 207090415. ^abSongG,HirdD(2013).MenandMasculinitiesinContemporaryChina.BrillPublishers.p. 92.ISBN 978-90-04-26491-5. ^SongG(2004).TheFragileScholar:PowerandMasculinityinChineseCulture.HongKongUniversityPress.p. 126.ISBN 978-962-209-620-2. ^HorvathT(February1981)."Physicalattractiveness:theinfluenceofselectedtorsoparameters".ArchivesofSexualBehavior.10(1):21–24.doi:10.1007/BF01542671.PMID 7212994.S2CID 7439609. ^abBraunMF,BryanA(2006)."Femalewaist-to-hipandmalewaist-to-shoulderratiosasdeterminantsofromanticpartnerdesirability".JournalofSocialandPersonalRelationships.23(5):805–19.doi:10.1177/0265407506068264.S2CID 2940276. ^SwamiV,TovéeMJ(2008)."TheMuscularMale:AComparisonofthePhysicalAttractivenessPreferencesofGayandHeterosexualMen".InternationalJournalofMen'sHealth.7(1):59–71.doi:10.3149/jmh.0701.59. ^FanJ,DaiW,LiuF,WuJ(February2005)."Visualperceptionofmalebodyattractiveness".Proceedings.BiologicalSciences.272(1560):219–26.doi:10.1098/rspb.2004.2922.PMC 1634963.PMID 15705545. ^"GettingMoreFemaleAttention".www.sosuave.com.RetrievedAugust15,2020. ^abCatikkasF(2011)."Physicalcorrelatesofcollegestudents'bodyimagesatisfactionlevels".SocialBehaviorandPersonality.39(4):497–502.doi:10.2224/sbp.2011.39.4.497. ^FurnhamA,TanT,McManusC(1997)."Waist-to-hipratioandpreferencesforbodyshape:Areplicationandextension"(PDF).PersonalityandIndividualDifferences.22(4):539–49.doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(96)00241-3.Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)onMarch28,2016. ^SwamiV,ToveeMJ(December2005)."MalephysicalattractivenessinBritainandMalaysia:Across-culturalstudy".BodyImage.2(4):383–93.doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2005.08.001.PMID 18089203. ^SinghD(1995)."Femalejudgmentofmaleattractivenessanddesirabilityforrelationships:Roleofwaist-to-hipratioandfinancialstatus".JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology.69(6):1089–1101.doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.6.1089.PMID 8531056. ^DececcoJ,WrightL(2013).TheBearBook:ReadingsintheHistoryandEvolutionofaGayMaleSubculture.NewYork:Routledge.p. 120.ISBN 978-1-56023-890-4. ^abFrederickDA,FesslerDM,HaseltonMG(March2005)."Dorepresentationsofmalemuscularitydifferinmen'sandwomen'smagazines?".BodyImage.2(1):81–86.doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2004.12.002.PMID 18089177. ^abJohnstonJR(2001).TheAmericanbodyincontext:Ananthology.US:ScholarlyResources,Inc. ^abBrierleyME,BrooksKR,MondJ,StevensonRJ,StephenID(June3,2016)."TheBodyandtheBeautiful:Health,AttractivenessandBodyCompositioninMen'sandWomen'sBodies".PLOSONE.11(6):e0156722.Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1156722B.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0156722.PMC 4892674.PMID 27257677. ^LatinskyA(2012)."Publicpresentationofgenderedbodies:Alookatgayandlesbianonlinedatingprofiles".SociationToday.10(2). ^DixsonBJ,DixsonAF,BishopPJ,ParishA(June2010)."Humanphysiqueandsexualattractivenessinmenandwomen:aNewZealand-U.S.comparativestudy".ArchivesofSexualBehavior.39(3):798–806.doi:10.1007/s10508-008-9441-y.PMID 19139985.S2CID 33112678. ^DixsonBJ,DixsonAF,LiB,AndersonMJ(2007)."Studiesofhumanphysiqueandsexualattractiveness:sexualpreferencesofmenandwomeninChina".AmericanJournalofHumanBiology.19(1):88–95.doi:10.1002/ajhb.20584.PMID 17160976.S2CID 8868828. ^abDixsonAF,HalliwellG,EastR,WignarajahP,AndersonMJ(February2003)."Masculinesomatotypeandhirsutenessasdeterminantsofsexualattractivenesstowomen".ArchivesofSexualBehavior.32(1):29–39.doi:10.1023/A:1021889228469.PMID 12597270.S2CID 10169455. ^RantalaMJ,PölkkiM,RantalaLM(2010)."Preferenceforhumanmalebodyhairchangesacrossthemenstrualcycleandmenopause".BehavioralEcology.21(2):419–23.doi:10.1093/beheco/arp206. ^J.W.Dixson,Barnaby;J.Rantala,Markus(2016)."TheRoleofFacialandBodyHairDistributioninWomen'sJudgmentsofMen'sSexualAttractiveness".ArchivesofSexualBehavior.45(4):877–89.doi:10.1007/s10508-015-0588-z.PMID 26292838.S2CID 19988758–viaSpringerlink. ^J.Dixon,Barnaby;L.Vasey,Paul(January13,2012)."Beardsaugmentperceptionsofmen'sage,socialstatus,andaggressiveness,butnotattractiveness".BehavioralEcology.23(3):481–90.doi:10.1093/beheco/arr214–viaOxfordacademic. ^Holton,NE;Bonner,LL;Scott,JE;Marshall,SD;Franciscus,RG;Southard,TE(June2015)."Theontogenyofthechin:ananalysisofallometricandbiomechanicalscaling".JournalofAnatomy.226(6):549–559.doi:10.1111/joa.12307.ISSN 0021-8782.PMC 4450959.PMID 25865897. ^Mommaerts,MauriceY.(2016)."Theidealmalejawangle–AnInternetsurvey".JournalofCranio-MaxillofacialSurgery.44(4):381–391.doi:10.1016/j.jcms.2015.12.012.ISSN 1010-5182.PMID 26888465. ^Wen,Y.F.;Wong,H.M.;Lin,R.;Yin,G.;McGrath,C.(2015)."Inter-Ethnic/RacialFacialVariations:ASystematicReviewandBayesianMeta-AnalysisofPhotogrammetricStudies".PLOSONE.10(8):e0134525.Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1034525W.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0134525.PMC 4527668.PMID 26247212. ^Rhee,S.C.(2018)."DifferencesbetweenCaucasianandAsianattractivefaces".SkinResearchandTechnology :OfficialJournalofInternationalSocietyforBioengineeringandtheSkin(Isbs)[And]InternationalSocietyforDigitalImagingofSkin(Isdis)[And]InternationalSocietyforSkinImaging(Issi).24(1):73–79.doi:10.1111/srt.12392.PMID 28722243.S2CID 24279633. ^Naini,FarhadB.;Cobourne,MartynT.;McDonald,Fraser;Wertheim,David(December2016)."Submental-CervicalAngle:PerceivedAttractivenessandThresholdValuesofDesireforSurgery".JournalofMaxillofacialandOralSurgery.15(4):469–477.doi:10.1007/s12663-015-0872-4.ISSN 0972-8279.PMC 5083688.PMID 27833339. ^BrowneKR(2006)."Sex,Power,andDominance:TheEvolutionaryPsychologyofSexualHarassment".ManagerialandDecisionEconomics.27(2–3):145–58.CiteSeerX 10.1.1.484.5566.doi:10.1002/mde.1289. ^abTattersallI(June11,2000)."WhateverTurnsYouOn:Apsychologistlooksatsexualattractionandwhatitmeansforhumankind.GeoffreyMiller".TheNewYorkTimes:BookReview.RetrievedJuly15,2011.itturnsoutthatsymmetryofbodilystructureisafitnessindicator,andsymmetryismoreeasilydetectableamonglargebreaststhansmallones. ^JacksonLB(1992).Physicalappearanceandgender:sociobiologicalandsocioculturalperspectives.StateUniversityofNewYorkPress. ^MillerL(2006).BeautyUp:ExploringContemporaryJapaneseBodyAesthetics.Berkeley,California:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.p. 28.ISBN 978-0-520-24508-2. ^abBerscheidandReis,1998 ^FinkB,Penton-VoakIS(2002)."EvolutionaryPsychologyofFacialAttractiveness".CurrentDirectionsinPsychologicalScience.11(5):154–58.doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00190.S2CID 10217832. ^BrizendineL(2006).Thefemalebrain.RandomHouseDigital,Inc.p. 63.ISBN 978-0-7679-2010-0. ^VanMeterJ(August11,2008)."About-Face".NYMag.RetrievedJuly30,2012. ^abcdJaysonS(March31,2011)."Study:Beautifulpeoplecashinontheirlooks".USAToday.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonAugust12,2011.RetrievedJuly15,2011.Numerousstudies,includinghisearlierresearch,haveconcludedthatbeautyhelpsthebudgetbyprovidinggreaterwealthinseveralways:Better-lookingpeoplegenerallyearnmoremoneyandmarrythosewhoarebetter-lookingandhigher-earning,hesays. ^"HowBigIsYourLimbalRing?".PsychologyToday.RetrievedJune14,2015. ^abcdeMilaniF(1992).VeilsandWords:TheEmergingVoicesofIranianWomenWriters.SyracuseUniversityPress.p. 187.ISBN 978-0-8156-0266-8. ^abcdefLaneEW(1883).ArabianSocietyintheMiddleAges:StudiesfromTheThousandandOneNights.London:ChattoandWindus,Piccadilly.pp. 214,215,216. ^abcBrayer,M.M.(1986).TheJewishWomaninRabbinicLiterature:Apsychologicalperspective.Hoboken,NewJersey:KtavPublishingHouse,Inc.,ISBN 0-88125-071-6,p.214. ^abcdefgKyoC(2012).TheSearchfortheBeautifulWoman:ACulturalHistoryofJapaneseandChineseBeauty.US:RowmanandLittlefieldPublishers,Inc.pp. 6,15,18–19.ISBN 978-1-4422-1895-6. ^JonesD,BraceCL,JankowiakW,LalandKN,MusselmanLE,LangloisJH,RoggmanLA,PérusseD,SchwederB,SymonsD(December1995)."Sexualselection,physicalattractiveness,andfacialneoteny:cross-culturalevidenceandimplications".CurrentAnthropology.36(5):723–48.doi:10.1086/204427.S2CID 52840802. ^SforzaC,LainoA,D'AlessioR,GrandiG,BinelliM,FerrarioVF(January2009)."Soft-tissuefacialcharacteristicsofattractiveItalianwomenascomparedtonormalwomen".TheAngleOrthodontist.79(1):17–23.doi:10.2319/122707-605.1.PMID 19123721. ^MarcinkowskaUM,KozlovMV,CaiH,Contreras-GarduñoJ,DixsonBJ,OanaGA,et al.(April2014)."Cross-culturalvariationinmen'spreferenceforsexualdimorphisminwomen'sfaces".BiologyLetters.10(4):20130850.doi:10.1098/rsbl.2013.0850.PMC 4013689.PMID 24789138. ^abcdefghijCunninghamMR,RobertsAR,BarbeeAP,DruenPB,WuCH(February1995)."Theirideasofbeautyare,onthewhole,thesameasours":Consistencyandvariabilityinthecross-culturalperceptionoffemalephysicalattractiveness".JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology.68(2):261–279.doi:10.1037/0022-3514.68.2.261. ^CunninghamMR(May1986)."MeasuringthePhysicalinPhysicalAttractiveness:Quasi-ExperimentsontheSociobiologyofFemaleFacialBeauty".JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology.50(5):925–35.doi:10.1037/0022-3514.50.5.925. ^FromCunningham(1986)ResearchwithWesternsubjectsdisclosedsignificantconsistencyinevaluatingattractiveness(Hatfield&Sprecher,1986;Iliife,1960).Thefemalesjudgedtobemostattractivemayhavesuchsimilarfacialfeaturesthattheywerehardtodistinguishonefromanother(Light,Hollander,&Kayra-Stuart,1981).Cross-culturalinvestigationsonthejudgmentoffacialattractivenesstendedtohighlightsocietaldifferences,butroughagreementsinfacialaestheticpreferenceswereshownbyAsian-Americanandwhitefemales(Wagatsuma&Kleinke,1979),Chinese,Indian,andEnglishfemalesjudgingGreekmales(Thakerar&Iwawaki,1979),SouthAfricanandAmericanmalesandfemales(Morse,Gruzen,&Reis,1976),andblacksandwhitesjudgingmalesandfemalesfrombothraces(Cross&Cross,1971). ^BussD(2003)[1994].TheEvolutionofDesire(second ed.).NewYork:BasicBooks.pp. 54–55.ISBN 978-0-465-07750-2. ^BergerM(1999).Whitelies:raceandthemythsofwhiteness.Canada:Farrar,StrousandGiroux.ISBN 978-0-374-52715-0. ^LiuJ(2008)."SexualizedLabour?'White-collarBeauties'inProvincialChina.".InJacksonS,LiuJ,WooJ(eds.).EastAsianSexualities:Modernity,GenderandNewSexualCultures.London:ZedBooks.pp. 85–103.ISBN 978-0-374-52715-0. ^abcdTierneyJ(January18,2007)."TheWaifFromIpanema".TheNewYorkTimes.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonJanuary21,2007.RetrievedNovember6,2009.women'saestheticjudgmentsaresoinfluencedbyotherwomen.Menpreferthewiderhips,andmostlikelycould[sic]carelessabouthighheelsandhandbags.Yetformanywomenallthesethingsareessentialtomarkingtheirbeautystatuswithotherwomen(unpublishedOpEd) ^Hönekopp,J.,Bartholomé,T.,&Jansen,G.(2004).FacialAttractiveness,Symmetry,andPhysicalFitnessinYoungWomen.HumanNature,15(2),147–167. ^"Perfectfacedimensionsmeasured".BBCNews.December18,2009.RetrievedMay22,2010. ^SohJ,ChewMT,WongHB(February2007)."AnAsiancommunity'sperspectiveonfacialprofileattractiveness".CommunityDentistryandOralEpidemiology.35(1):18–24.doi:10.1111/j.1600-0528.2007.00304.x.PMID 17244134. ^WilkinsCL,ChanJF,KaiserCR(October2011)."Racialstereotypesandinterracialattraction:phenotypicprototypicalityandperceivedattractivenessofAsians".CulturalDiversity&EthnicMinorityPsychology.17(4):427–31.doi:10.1037/a0024733.PMID 21988581.seebottom-leftofp.43 ^abWilkesJ,ed.(1823).EncyclopaediaLondinensis,orUniversalDictionaryofArts,ScienceandLiterature.Vol. 19.JohnWilkes.p. 173.{{citeencyclopedia}}:Missingorempty|title=(help) ^HowardN(1830).OnPersianPoetry.Plymouth.p. 30. ^KyoC(October16,2012).TheSearchfortheBeautifulWoman:ACulturalHistoryofJapaneseandChineseBeauty.Rowman&LittlefieldPublishers.ISBN 9781442218956. ^BuckleyS(January1,2009).TheEncyclopediaofContemporaryJapaneseCulture.Taylor&Francis.ISBN 9780415481526. ^BondsAB(January1,2008).BeijingOperaCostumes:TheVisualCommunicationofCharacterandCulture.UniversityofHawaiiPress.ISBN 9780824829568. ^"CultureofIran:Cosmetics,Styles&BeautyConceptsinIran".www.iranchamber.com.RetrievedMarch28,2016. ^CheeE,ChooCT(January2011)."Asianblepharoplasty--anoverview".Orbit(Amsterdam,Netherlands).30(1):58–61.doi:10.3109/01676830.2010.535644.PMID 21281084.S2CID 40790761. ^McCurdyJA,LamSM(2005).CosmeticSurgeryoftheAsianFace(2nd ed.).China:ThiemeMedicalPublishers,Inc.p. 6.ISBN 978-1-58890-218-4. ^HwangHS,SpiegelJH(March2014)."Theeffectof"single"vs"double"eyelidsontheperceivedattractivenessofChinesewomen".AestheticSurgeryJournal.34(3):374–82.doi:10.1177/1090820X14523020.PMID 24604790. ^Gill,R.D.(2004).Topsy-turvy1585:AtranslationandexplicationofLuisFroisS.J.'sTratado(treatise)listing611waysEuropeans&Japanesearecontrary.ParaversePress.pp.57–58.ISBN 0-9742618-1-5,ISBN 978-0-9742618-1-2 ^EliaIE(September2013)."Afoxyviewofhumanbeauty:implicationsofthefarmfoxexperimentforunderstandingtheoriginsofstructuralandexperientialaspectsoffacialattractiveness".TheQuarterlyReviewofBiology.88(3):163–83.doi:10.1086/671486.PMID 24053070.S2CID 22293068. ^Scientificproofthatmenlookatwomen'sbreastsfirstandtheirfaceisalmostlastTheDailyTelegraph ^BussDM(2005).TheHandbookofEvolutionaryPsychology.JohnWileyandSons.p. 325.ISBN 978-0-471-26403-3. ^abFurnhamA,SwamiV(2007)."Perceptionoffemalebuttocksandbreastsizeinprofile".SocBehavPers.35(1):1–8.doi:10.2224/sbp.2007.35.1.1. ^abcSugiyamaLS(2005)."PhysicalAttractivenessinAdaptationistPerspective"(PDF).InBussDM(ed.).EvolutionaryPsychologyHandbook.JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.pp. 292–343. ^"Hourglassfigurefertilitylink".bbc.co.uk.May4,2004.RetrievedJune14,2015. ^GroyeckaA,ŻelaźniewiczA,MisiakM,KarwowskiM,SorokowskiP(July2017)."Breastshape(ptosis)asamarkerofawoman'sbreastattractivenessandage:EvidencefromPolandandPapua".AmericanJournalofHumanBiology.29(4):e22981.doi:10.1002/ajhb.22981.PMID 28211217.S2CID 4576540. ^RodgersJE(2003).Sex:ANaturalHistory.Macmillan.p. 102.ISBN 978-0-8050-7281-5. ^Wade,T.J.(2010)."TheRelationshipsbetweenSymmetryandAttractivenessandMatingRelevantDecisionsandBehavior:AReview".Symmetry.2(2):1081–1098.Bibcode:2010Symm....2.1081W.doi:10.3390/sym2021081. ^Pal,P.(1986).IndianSculpture –Volume1 –circa500B.C –A.D.700.AcatalogueoftheLosAngelesCountyMuseumofArtCollection.Berkeley,LosAngeles&London:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.p.32.ISBN 9780520059917 ^SwamiV,JonesJ,EinonD,FurnhamA(May2009)."Men'spreferencesforwomen'sprofilewaist-to-hipratio,breastsize,andethnicgroupinBritainandSouthAfrica".BritishJournalofPsychology.100(Pt2):313–25.doi:10.1348/000712608x329525.PMID 18625082. ^FisherHE(1982).TheSexContract:TheEvolutionofHumanBehavior.NewYork:WilliamMorrow&Company,Inc.ISBN 9780688006402. ^HawkinsE(October25,2017)."Whyarchedbacksareattractive".springer.com. ^PazhoohiF,DoyleJF,MacedoAF,ArantesJ(2017)."ArchingtheBack(LumbarCurvature)asaFemaleSexualProceptivitySignal:anEye-TrackingStudy".EvolutionaryPsychologicalScience.4(2):1–8.doi:10.1007/s40806-017-0123-7.S2CID 149046079. ^abCaroTM,SellenDW(1990)."TheReproductiveAdvantagesofFatinWomen"(PDF).EthologyandSociobiology.11(5):1–66.doi:10.1016/0162-3095(90)90005-Q.hdl:2027.42/28785. ^HeblMR,HeathertonTF(1997)."TheStigmaofObesityinWomen:TheDifferenceisBlackandWhite".PersonalityandSocialPsychologyBulletin.24(4):418.doi:10.1177/0146167298244008.S2CID 143697452. ^TovéeMJ,ReinhardtS,EmeryJL,CornelissenPL(August1998)."Optimumbody-massindexandmaximumsexualattractiveness".Lancet.352(9127):548.doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)79257-6.PMID 9716069.S2CID 35886360. ^abcBussD(2003)[1994].TheEvolutionofDesire(second ed.).NewYork:BasicBooks.pp. 55,56.ISBN 978-0-465-07750-2. ^Furnham,Adrian,GiannaCarolineFischer,LaurenTanner,MelanieDias,andAlastairMcClelland1998. ^BrownPJ,SweeneyJ(2009)."TheAnthropologyofOverweight,ObesityandtheBody".AnthroNotes.30(1). ^NettleD(November2009)."Ecologicalinfluencesonhumanbehaviouraldiversity:areviewofrecentfindings".TrendsinEcology&Evolution.24(11):618–24.doi:10.1016/j.tree.2009.05.013.PMID 19683831. ^HellmichN(September26,2006)."Dothinmodelswarpgirls'bodyimage?".USAToday.RetrievedNovember6,2009.Thewidespreadconcernthatmodelthinnesshasprogressedfromwillowytowastedhasreachedathresholdasevidencedbytherecentactionsoffashionshoworganizers. ^WitcombGL,ArcelusJ,ChenJ(December2013)."CancognitivedissonancemethodsdevelopedintheWestforcombattingthe'thinideal'helpslowtherapidlyincreasingprevalenceofeatingdisordersinnon-Westerncultures?".ShanghaiArchivesofPsychiatry.25(6):332–40.doi:10.3969/j.issn.1002-0829.2013.06.002.PMC 4054580.PMID 24991176. ^abSilverAK(2004).VictorianLiteratureandtheAnorexicBody.UK:CambridgeUniversityPress.pp. 38,48.ISBN 978-0-511-03051-2. ^Kilpela,LisaSmith;Becker,CarolynBlack;Wesley,Nicole;Stewart,Tiffany(July1,2015)."BodyImageinAdultWomen:MovingBeyondtheYoungerYears".AdvancesinEatingDisorders(Abingdon,England).3(2):144–164.doi:10.1080/21662630.2015.1012728.ISSN 2166-2630.PMC 4452130.PMID 26052476. ^BrownJE,PotterJD,JacobsDR,KopherRA,RourkeMJ,BarossoGM,HannanPJ,SchmidLA(January1996)."Maternalwaist-to-hipratioasapredictorofnewbornsize:ResultsoftheDianaProject".Epidemiology.7(1):62–6.doi:10.1097/00001648-199601000-00011.JSTOR 3702758.PMID 8664403.S2CID 24471765. ^BjornC(February13,2006)."TheRulesofAttractionintheGameofLove".LiveScience(Pressrelease).RetrievedJanuary9,2006. ^SinghD(December2002)."Femalematevalueataglance:relationshipofwaist-to-hipratiotohealth,fecundityandattractiveness"(PDF).NeuroEndocrinologyLetters.23.23Suppl4:81–91.PMID 12496738. ^BussD(2003)[1994].TheEvolutionofDesire(second ed.).NewYork:BasicBooks.p. 56.ISBN 978-0-465-07750-2. ^WetsmanaA,MarlowebF(July1999)."HowUniversalArePreferencesforFemaleWaist-to-HipRatios?EvidencefromtheHadzaofTanzania".EvolutionandHumanBehavior.20(4):219–228.doi:10.1016/S1090-5138(99)00007-0. ^HorvathT(1979)."Correlatesofphysicalbeautyinmenandwomen".SocialBehaviorandPersonality.7(2):145–151.doi:10.2224/sbp.1979.7.2.145. ^FisherML,VoracekM(June2006)."Theshapeofbeauty:determinantsoffemalephysicalattractiveness".JournalofCosmeticDermatology.5(2):190–4.doi:10.1111/j.1473-2165.2006.00249.x.PMID 17173598.S2CID 25660426. ^DixsonBJ,DixsonAF,LiB,AndersonMJ(January2007)."Studiesofhumanphysiqueandsexualattractiveness:sexualpreferencesofmenandwomeninChina".AmericanJournalofHumanBiology.19(1):88–95.doi:10.1002/ajhb.20584.PMID 17160976.S2CID 8868828. ^MarloweF,WetsmanA(2001)."Preferredwaist-to-hipratioandecology"(PDF).PersonalityandIndividualDifferences.30(3):481–489.CiteSeerX 10.1.1.489.4169.doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(00)00039-8.Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)onJune30,2014.RetrievedAugust4,2007. ^MarloweF,ApicellaC,ReedD(November2005)."Men'spreferencesforwomen'sprofilewaist-to-hipratiointwosocieties".EvolHumBehav.26(6):458–468.doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2005.07.005.asPDFArchivedJune1,2014,attheWaybackMachine ^FreedmanRE,CarterMM,SbroccoT,GrayJJ(August2007)."DomenholdAfrican-AmericanandCaucasianwomentodifferentstandardsofbeauty?".EatingBehaviors.8(3):319–33.doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2006.11.008.PMC 3033406.PMID 17606230. ^FreedmanRE,CarterMM,SbroccoT,GrayJJ(July2004)."Ethnicdifferencesinpreferencesforfemaleweightandwaist-to-hipratio:acomparisonofAfrican-AmericanandWhiteAmericancollegeandcommunitysamples".EatingBehaviors.5(3):191–8.doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2004.01.002.PMID 15135331. ^SorokowskiP,KościńskiK,SorokowskaA,HuancaT(2014)."Preferenceforwomen'sbodymassandwaist-to-hipratioinTsimane'menoftheBolivianAmazon:biologicalandculturaldeterminants".PLOSONE.9(8):e105468.Bibcode:2014PLoSO...9j5468S.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0105468.PMC 4141791.PMID 25148034. ^MarloweF,WetsmanbA(February2001)."Preferredwaist-to-hipratioandecology".PersonalityandIndividualDifferences.30(3):481–89.CiteSeerX 10.1.1.489.4169.doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(00)00039-8. ^BarberN(September1995)."Theevolutionarypsychologyofphysicalattractiveness:Sexualselectionandhumanmorphology".EthologyandSociobiology.16(5):395–424.doi:10.1016/0162-3095(95)00068-2. ^VoracekM,FisherML,RuppB,LucasD,FesslerDM(June2007)."Sexdifferencesinrelativefootlengthandperceivedattractivenessoffemalefeet:relationshipsamonganthropometry,physique,andpreferenceratings".PerceptualandMotorSkills.104(3Pt2):1123–38.doi:10.2466/pms.104.3c.1123-1138.PMID 17879647. ^BermanJE(1993)."FemaleGenitalMutilation,Yes,butDon'tCondoneIt".TheNewYorkTimes. ^BussDM(2005).Thehandbookofevolutionarypsychology.JohnWileyandSons.p. 309.ISBN 978-0-471-26403-3. ^abBereczkeiT,MeskóN."Hairlength,facialattractiveness,personalityattribution;Amultiplefitnessmodelofhairdressing".ReviewofPsychology.13(1):35–42. ^JohnsonKL,TassinaryLG(March2007)."Compatibilityofbasicsocialperceptionsdeterminesperceivedattractiveness".ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciencesoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica.104(12):5246–51.Bibcode:2007PNAS..104.5246J.doi:10.1073/pnas.0608181104.PMC 1829294.PMID 17360395. "CluesToMysteriesOfPhysicalAttractivenessRevealed".ScienceDaily(Pressrelease).May24,2007. ^abcMillerG,TyburJM,JordanBD(2007)."Ovulatorycycleeffectsontipearningsbylapdancers:economicevidenceforhumanestrus?".Evolution&HumanBehavior.28(6):375–81.CiteSeerX 10.1.1.154.8176.doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2007.06.002. ^BobstC,LobmaierJS(September2012)."Men'spreferencefortheovulatingfemaleistriggeredbysubtlefaceshapedifferences".HormonesandBehavior.62(4):413–17.doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2012.07.008.PMID 22846725.S2CID 27196864. ^JonesBC,DeBruineLM,PerrettDI,LittleAC,FeinbergDR,LawSmithMJ(February2008)."Effectsofmenstrualcyclephaseonfacepreferences".ArchivesofSexualBehavior.37(1):78–84.doi:10.1007/s10508-007-9268-y.PMID 18193349.S2CID 6790154. ^GangestadSW,SimpsonJA,CousinsAJ,Garver-ApgarCE,ChristensenPN(March2004)."Women'spreferencesformalebehavioraldisplayschangeacrossthemenstrualcycle".PsychologicalScience.15(3):2030–7.CiteSeerX 10.1.1.371.3266.doi:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.01503010.x.PMID 15016293.S2CID 9820539. ^abFeinbergDR,JonesBC,LawSmithMJ,MooreFR,DeBruineLM,CornwellRE,HillierSG,PerrettDI(February2006)."Menstrualcycle,traitestrogenlevel,andmasculinitypreferencesinthehumanvoice".HormonesandBehavior.49(2):215–22.doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2005.07.004.PMID 16055126.S2CID 14884832. ^CantúSM,SimpsonJA,GriskeviciusV,WeisbergYJ,DuranteKM,BealDJ(February2014)."Fertileandselectivelyflirty:women'sbehaviortowardmenchangesacrosstheovulatorycycle".PsychologicalScience.25(2):431–38.doi:10.1177/0956797613508413.PMID 24335600.S2CID 15136174. ^SmithMJ,PerrettDI,JonesBC,CornwellRE,MooreFR,FeinbergDR,BoothroydLG,DurraniSJ,StirratMR,WhitenS,PitmanRM,HillierSG(January2006)."Facialappearanceisacuetooestrogenlevelsinwomen".Proceedings.BiologicalSciences.273(1583):135–40.doi:10.1098/rspb.2005.3296.PMC 1560017.PMID 16555779. ^SolerC,NúñezM,GutiérrezR,NúñezJ,MedinaP,SanchoM,ÁlvarezJ,NúńezA(2003)."Facialattractivenessinmenprovidescluestosemenquality".Evolution&HumanBehavior.24(3):199–207.doi:10.1016/s1090-5138(03)00013-8. ^SinghD(1993)."Adaptivesignificanceoffemalephysicalattractiveness:Roleofwaist-to-hipratio".JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology.65(2):293–307.CiteSeerX 10.1.1.492.9539.doi:10.1037/0022-3514.65.2.293.PMID 8366421. ^ScheaeferK,FinkB,GrammerK,MitteroeckerP,GunzP,BooksteinFL(2006)."Femaleappearance:facialandbodilyattractivenessasshape".PsychologyScience. ^DixsonBJ,VaseyPL,SagataK,SibandaN,LinklaterWL,DixsonAF(December2011)."Men'spreferencesforwomen'sbreastmorphologyinNewZealand,Samoa,andPapuaNewGuinea".ArchivesofSexualBehavior.40(6):1271–79.doi:10.1007/s10508-010-9680-6.PMID 20862533.S2CID 34125295. ^ThornhillR,GrammerK(1999)."TheBodyandFaceofWoman:OneOrnamentThatSignalsQuality?".EvolutionandHumanBehavior.20(2):105–20.doi:10.1016/S1090-5138(98)00044-0. ^JasieńskaG,ZiomkiewiczA,EllisonPT,LipsonSF,ThuneI(June2004)."Largebreastsandnarrowwaistsindicatehighreproductivepotentialinwomen".Proceedings.BiologicalSciences.271(1545):1213–17.doi:10.1098/rspb.2004.2712.PMC 1691716.PMID 15306344. ^MarloweF(September1998)."Thenubilityhypothesis:Thehumanbreastasanhonestsignalofresidualreproductivevalue".HumanNature.9(3):263–71.doi:10.1007/s12110-998-1005-2.PMID 26197484.S2CID 37725304. ^abcdeWangT,MoL,MoC,TanLH,CantJS,ZhongL,CupchikG(June2015)."Ismoralbeautydifferentfromfacialbeauty?EvidencefromanfMRIstudy".SocialCognitiveandAffectiveNeuroscience.10(6):814–23.doi:10.1093/scan/nsu123.PMC 4448025.PMID 25298010. ^GrebeNM,GangestadSW,Garver-ApgarCE,ThornhillR(October2013)."Women'sluteal-phasesexualproceptivityandthefunctionsofextendedsexuality".PsychologicalScience.24(10):2106–10.doi:10.1177/0956797613485965.PMID 23965377.S2CID 30483150. ^DombLG,PagelM(March2001)."Sexualswellingsadvertisefemalequalityinwildbaboons".Nature.410(6825):204–06.Bibcode:2001Natur.410..204D.doi:10.1038/35065597.PMID 11242079.S2CID 1274076. ^WinstonJS,O'DohertyJ,KilnerJM,PerrettDI,DolanRJ(January2007)."Brainsystemsforassessingfacialattractiveness".Neuropsychologia.ThePerceptionofEmotionandSocialCuesinFaces.45(1):195–206.doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.05.009.hdl:21.11116/0000-0001-9F80-B.PMID 16828125.S2CID 782266. ^VartanianO,GoelV,LamE,FisherM,GranicJ(2013)."Middletemporalgyrusencodesindividualdifferencesinperceivedfacialattractiveness".PsychologyofAesthetics,Creativity,andtheArts.7(1):38–47.doi:10.1037/a0031591. ^TsukiuraT,CabezaR(January2011)."Rememberingbeauty:rolesoforbitofrontalandhippocampalregionsinsuccessfulmemoryencodingofattractivefaces".NeuroImage.54(1):653–60.doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.07.046.PMC 2962707.PMID 20659568. ^abTsukiuraT,CabezaR(January2011)."Sharedbrainactivityforaestheticandmoraljudgments:implicationsfortheBeauty-is-Goodstereotype".SocialCognitiveandAffectiveNeuroscience.6(1):138–48.doi:10.1093/scan/nsq025.PMC 3023089.PMID 20231177. ^O'DohertyJ,WinstonJ,CritchleyH,PerrettD,BurtDM,DolanRJ(January1,2003)."Beautyinasmile:theroleofmedialorbitofrontalcortexinfacialattractiveness".Neuropsychologia.41(2):147–55.doi:10.1016/s0028-3932(02)00145-8.hdl:21.11116/0000-0001-A0A6-E.PMID 12459213.S2CID 205902982. ^KranzF,IshaiA(January2006)."Faceperceptionismodulatedbysexualpreference".CurrentBiology.16(1):63–8.doi:10.1016/j.cub.2005.10.070.PMID 16401423.S2CID 17857160. ^Martín-LoechesM,Hernández-TamamesJA,MartínA,UrrutiaM(September2014)."Beautyanduglinessinthebodiesandfacesofothers:anfMRIstudyofpersonestheticjudgement".Neuroscience.277:486–97.doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.07.040.PMID 25086316.S2CID 601643. ^LangloisJH,KalakanisL,RubensteinAJ,LarsonA,HallamM,SmootM(May2000)."Maximsormythsofbeauty?Ameta-analyticandtheoreticalreview".PsychologicalBulletin.126(3):390–423.CiteSeerX 10.1.1.320.1537.doi:10.1037/0033-2909.126.3.390.PMID 10825783.asPDF ^WalsterE,AronsonV,AbrahamsD,RottmanL(November1966)."Importanceofphysicalattractivenessindatingbehavior".JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology.4(5):508–16.doi:10.1037/h0021188.PMID 6008393. ^abCowleyG(June3,1996)."TheBiologyofbeauty".Newsweek. ^abBussD(2003)[1994].TheEvolutionofDesire(second ed.).NewYork:BasicBooks.pp. 57,58,60–63.ISBN 978-0-465-07750-2. ^Bar-TalD,SaxeL(1976)."Physicalattractivenessanditsrelationshiptosex-rolestereotyping".SexRoles.2(2).doi:10.1007/BF00287245.S2CID 143893443. ^NevidJS(1984)."Sexdifferencesinfactorsofromanticattraction".SexRoles.11(5–6):401–11.doi:10.1007/BF00287468.S2CID 143083067. ^LiNP,KenrickDT(March2006)."Sexsimilaritiesanddifferencesinpreferencesforshort-termmates:what,whether,andwhy".JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology.90(3):468–89.CiteSeerX 10.1.1.491.5834.doi:10.1037/0022-3514.90.3.468.PMID 16594832. ^EastwickPW,FinkelEJ(February2008)."Sexdifferencesinmatepreferencesrevisited:dopeopleknowwhattheyinitiallydesireinaromanticpartner?".JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology.94(2):245–64.doi:10.1037/0022-3514.94.2.245.PMID 18211175. ^abLiNP,ValentineKA(2011)."MatepreferencesintheUSandSingapore:Across-culturaltestofthematepreferenceprioritymodel".PersonalityandIndividualDifferences.50(2):291–94.CiteSeerX 10.1.1.261.3596.doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.10.005. ^FeingoldA(1990)."Genderdifferencesineffectsofphysicalattractivenessonromanticattraction:Acomparisonacrossfiveresearchparadigms".JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology.59(5):981–993.doi:10.1037/0022-3514.59.5.981. ^EastwickPW,EaglyAH,FinkelEJ,JohnsonSE(November2011)."Implicitandexplicitpreferencesforphysicalattractivenessinaromanticpartner:adoubledissociationinpredictivevalidity".JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology.101(5):993–1011.doi:10.1037/a0024061.PMID 21767032. ^LittleAC,CohenDL,JonesBC,BelskyJ(2006)."Humanpreferencesforfacialmasculinitychangewithrelationshiptypeandenvironmentalharshness".BehavioralEcologyandSociobiology.61(6):967–73.doi:10.1007/s00265-006-0325-7.S2CID 22019674. ^BelskyJ,CohenDL(2008)."Individualdifferencesinfemalematepreferencesasafunctionofattachmentandhypotheticalecologicalconditions".JournalofEvolutionaryPsychology.6:25–42.doi:10.1556/JEP.2008.1001. ^DunnMJ,SearleR(February2010)."Effectofmanipulatedprestige-carownershiponbothsexattractivenessratings".BritishJournalofPsychology.101(Pt1):69–80.doi:10.1348/000712609X417319.PMID 19302732. ^Stangor,DrCharles(September26,2014).InitialAttraction.opentextbc.ca. ^ConferJC,PerillouxC,BussDM(September1,2010)."Morethanjustaprettyface:men'spriorityshiftstowardbodilyattractivenessinshort-termversuslong-termmatingcontexts".EvolutionandHumanBehavior.31(5):348–53.doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2010.04.002. ^SymonsD(1995)."Beautyisintheadaptationsofthebeholder:theevolutionarypsychologyofhumanfemalesexualattractiveness.".InAbramsonPR,PinkertonSD(eds.).SexualNature,SexualCulture.ChicagoSeriesonSexuality,History,andSociety.Chicago:Univ.ChicagoPress.pp. 80–119. ^MealeyL(2000).Sexdifferencesdevelopmentandevolutionarystrategies.SanDiego:AcademicPress.ISBN 978-0-12-487460-2. ^HrdySB(2000).Mothernature:maternalinstinctsandhowtheyshapethehumanspecies(1st ed.).NewYork:Ballantine.ISBN 978-0-345-40893-8. ^abTraffordA,CherlinA(March6,2001)."SecondOpinion:Men'sHealth&Marriage".WashingtonPost.RetrievedNovember6,2009.Themajorreasonfortheimbalancebetweenmenandwomeninthelaterdecadesoflifeisbecausementendtomarryyoungerwomenastheygetolder. ^"Womendrawntomenwithmuscles".Reuters.July10,2007.RetrievedJune14,2015. ^"Women'schoiceofmengoesincycles".bbc.co.uk.June24,1999.RetrievedJune14,2015. ^"Whenadmiringpotentialpartners'faces,womenlookforbothoverallaestheticsandindividualsexualappeal".TIME.com.August26,2009.RetrievedJune14,2015. ^"FuturePundit:StudyonDifferencesinFemale,MaleSexuality".futurepundit.com.RetrievedJune14,2015. ^McCainRS(December23,2002)."Federallyfundedstudymeasurespornarousal".TheWashingtonTimes. ^BergnerD(January25,2009)."WhatDoWomenWant?".TheNewYorkTimes. ^ChiversML,RiegerG,LattyE,BaileyJM(November2004)."Asexdifferenceinthespecificityofsexualarousal".PsychologicalScience.15(11):736–44.doi:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00750.x.PMID 15482445.S2CID 5538811. "StudySuggestsDifferenceBetweenFemaleAndMaleSexuality".ScienceDaily(Pressrelease).June13,2003.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonNovember6,2004. ^AdrianB(2003).FramingtheBride:GlobalizingBeautyandRomanceinTaiwan'sBridalIndustry.Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress. ^FrederickDA,HaseltonMG(August2007)."Whyismuscularitysexy?Testsofthefitnessindicatorhypothesis".Personality&SocialPsychologyBulletin.33(8):1167–83.CiteSeerX 10.1.1.123.5832.doi:10.1177/0146167207303022.PMID 17578932.S2CID 2972841. ^LockeKD,HorowitzLM(May1990)."Satisfactionininterpersonalinteractionsasafunctionofsimilarityinlevelofdysphoria".JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology.58(5):823–31.doi:10.1037//0022-3514.58.5.823.PMID 2348370. ^DeBruineLM(May2004)."Resemblancetoselfincreasestheappealofchildfacestobothmenandwomen".EvolHumBehav.25(3):142–54.doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2004.03.003. ^DeBruineLM(May2005)."Trustworthybutnotlust-worthy:context-specificeffectsoffacialresemblance".Proceedings.BiologicalSciences.272(1566):919–22.doi:10.1098/rspb.2004.3003.PMC 1564091.PMID 16024346. ^Lass-HennemannJ,DeuterCE,KuehlLK,SchulzA,BlumenthalTD,SchachingerH(July2010)."Effectsofstressonhumanmatingpreferences:stressedindividualspreferdissimilarmates".Proceedings.BiologicalSciences.277(1691):2175–83.doi:10.1098/rspb.2010.0258.PMC 2880157.PMID 20219732. ^HallRE(2008).Racisminthe21stCentury:AnEmpiricalAnalysisofSkinColor.NewYork:SpringerScience.ISBN 978-0-387-79097-8.smallsamplesize(80);seeTable6.4onp.107 ^"BlackWomenAreNot(Rated)LessAttractive!OurIndependentAnalysisoftheAddHealthDataset".PsychologyToday.RetrievedAugust15,2020. ^Lewis,MichaelB(2011)."Whoisthefairestofthemall?Race,attractivenessandskincolorsexualdimorphism".PersonalityandIndividualDifferences.50(2):159–62.doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.09.018. ^TsunokaiGT,McGrathAR,KavanaghJK(2014)."OnlineDatingPreferencesofAsianAmericans".JournalofSocialandPersonalRelationships.31(6):796–814.doi:10.1177/0265407513505925.S2CID 146249536. ^BurkeD,NolanC,HaywardWG,RussellR,SulikowskiD(August2013)."Isthereanown-racepreferenceinattractiveness?".EvolutionaryPsychology.11(4):855–72.doi:10.1177/147470491301100410.PMID 23948346.S2CID 14172220. ^StephenID,SalterDL,TanKW,TanCB,StevensonRJ(July3,2018)."SexualdimorphismandattractivenessinAsianandWhitefaces".VisualCognition.26(6):442–49.doi:10.1080/13506285.2018.1475437.S2CID 150264484. ^LewisMB(February9,2012)."Afacialattractivenessaccountofgenderasymmetriesininterracialmarriage".PLOSONE.7(2):e31703.Bibcode:2012PLoSO...731703L.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0031703.PMC 3276508.PMID 22347504. ^StephenID,ScottIM,CoetzeeV,PoundN,PerrettDI,Penton-VoakIS(July1,2012)."Cross-culturaleffectsofcolor,butnotmorphologicalmasculinity,onperceivedattractivenessofmen'sfaces".EvolutionandHumanBehavior.33(4):260–67.doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2011.10.003.hdl:2263/19120. ^K.Maner,Jon;T.Kendrick,Douglas;VaughnBecker,D.;W.Delton,Andrew;Hofer,Brian;J.Wilbur,Christopher;L.Neuberg,Steven(2003)."SexuallySelectiveCognition:BeautyCapturestheMindoftheBeholder"(PDF).JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology.85(6):1107–20.doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.6.1107.PMID 14674817–viaN/A. ^VanOsch,Yvette;Blanken,Irene;H.J.Meijs,Maartje;VanWolferen,Job(January18,2015)."Agroup'sphysicalattractivenessisgreaterthantheaverageattractivenessofitsmembers:Thegroupattractivenesseffect".PersonalityandSocialPsychologyBulletin.41(4):559–74.doi:10.1177/0146167215572799.PMID 25733515.S2CID 35619191–viaSagejournals. ^abCashTF,GillenB,BurnsDS(June1977)."Sexismandbeautyisminpersonnelconsultantdecisionmaking".JournalofAppliedPsychology.62(3):301–310.doi:10.1037/0021-9010.62.3.301. ^abClarkMS,MillsJ(January1979)."Interpersonalattractioninexchangeandcommunalrelationships".JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology.37(1):12–24.doi:10.1037/0022-3514.37.1.12. ^LorenzoGL,BiesanzJC,HumanLJ(December2010)."Whatisbeautifulisgoodandmoreaccuratelyunderstood.Physicalattractivenessandaccuracyinfirstimpressionsofpersonality".PsychologicalScience.21(12):1777–1782.doi:10.1177/0956797610388048.PMID 21051521.S2CID 12066448. ^GuptaND,EtcoffNL,JaegerMM(2015)."BeautyinMind:TheEffectsofPhysicalAttractivenessonPsychologicalWell-BeingandDistress".JournalofHappinessStudies.17(3):1313–1325.doi:10.1007/s10902-015-9644-6.S2CID 145278137. ^abKwanS,TrautnerMN(January2009)."BeautyWork:IndividualandInstitutionalRewards,theReproductionofGender,andQuestionsofAgency".SociologyCompass.3(1):49–71.doi:10.1111/j.1751-9020.2008.00179.x. ^SaltzbergEA,ChrislerJC(1995)."BeautyIstheBeast:PsychologicalEffectsofthePursuitofthePerfectFemaleBody".InFreemanJ(ed.).Women:AFeministPerspective.Vol. 5(5th ed.).MountainView,CA:MayfieldPublishingCompany.pp. 306–315. ^KottasovaI(February3,2016)."'Pinktax'angerswomenfromNewYorktoLondon".CNNMoney. ^AlterC(December21,2015)."WomenPayMoreforEverythingFromBirthtoDeath,ReportFinds".TimeMagazine. ^LewandowskiJrGW,AronA,GeeJ(2007)."Personalitygoesalongway:Themalleabilityofopposite-sexphysicalattractiveness".PersonalRelationships.14(4):571–585.CiteSeerX 10.1.1.471.9217.doi:10.1111/j.1475-6811.2007.00172.x. ^Hitsch,Gunter;Hortaçsu,Ali;Ariely,Dan(March1,2020)."MatchingandSortinginOnlineDating".AmericanEconomicReview.100(1):130–63.doi:10.1257/aer.100.1.130. ^Feingold,A(1988)."Matchingforattractivenessinromanticpartnersandsame-sexfriends:Ameta-analysisandtheoreticalcritique".PsychologicalBulletin.104(2):226–235.doi:10.1037/0033-2909.104.2.226.S2CID 143857084. ^Hunt,Lucy;Eastwick,Paul;Finkel,Eli(June26,2015)."LevelingthePlayingField:LongerAcquaintancePredictsReducedAssortativeMatingonAttractiveness".Psychol.Sci.26(7):1046–1053.doi:10.1177/0956797615579273.PMID 26068893.S2CID 7305736. ^"UniversityofTorontoLibraries".utoronto.ca.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonJuly22,2012.RetrievedJune14,2015. ^PfeiferC(2012)."PhysicalAttractiveness,Employment,andEarnings".AppliedEconomicsLetters.19(6):505–510.doi:10.1080/13504851.2011.587758.hdl:10419/51972.S2CID 154832307.RetrievedMarch19,2013. ^Monk,EllisP.;Esposito,MichaelH.;Lee,Hedwig(2021)."BeholdingInequality:Race,Gender,andReturnstoPhysicalAttractivenessintheUnitedStates".AmericanJournalofSociology.127(1):194–241.doi:10.1086/715141.S2CID 235473652. ^Bi,Weilong;Chan,HoFai;Torgler,Benno(October7,2020).""Beauty"premiumforsocialscientistsbut"unattractiveness"premiumfornaturalscientistsinthepublicspeakingmarket".HumanitiesandSocialSciencesCommunications.7(1):1–9.doi:10.1057/s41599-020-00608-6.ISSN 2662-9992. ^GolemanD(December8,1992)."ARisingCostOfModernity:Depression".TheNewYorkTimes.RetrievedNovember6,2009.CompetingexplanationsrangefromalossofbeliefsinGodoranafterlifethatcanbufferpeopleagainstlife'ssetbacks,tothestressesofindustrialization,tothedistresscreatedinwomenbythespreadofunattainableidealsoffemalebeauty,toexposuretotoxicsubstances. ^DesanttsA,KaysonWA(October1997)."Defendants'characteristicsofattractiveness,race,andsexandsentencingdecisions".PsychologicalReports.81(2):679–83.doi:10.2466/pr0.1997.81.2.679.S2CID 144056321. ^LangloisJH,KalakanisL,RubensteinAJ,LarsonA,HallamM,SmootM(May2000)."Maximsormythsofbeauty?Ameta-analyticandtheoreticalreview"(PDF).PsychologicalBulletin.126(3):390–423.CiteSeerX 10.1.1.320.1537.doi:10.1037/0033-2909.126.3.390.PMID 10825783. ^CliffordM,WalsterE(1973)."TheEffectofPhysicalAttractivenessonTeacherExpectations"(PDF).SociologyofEducation.46(2):248–258.doi:10.2307/2112099.JSTOR 2112099.RetrievedAugust4,2012. ^EfrainM,PattersonEW(1974)."Votersvotebeautiful:Theeffectofphysicalappearanceonanationalelection".CanadianJournalofBehaviouralScience.6(4):352–356.doi:10.1037/h0081881. ^PersaudR(April30,2005)."Sciencerewritestherulesofattraction".sensualism.com.LondonTimes.RetrievedJune14,2015. ^"DefinitionofLOOKISM".www.merriam-webster.com.RetrievedNovember19,2021. ^"Sexualbehaviorpredictedbyvoiceattractiveness".psychdaily.com.RetrievedJune14,2015. ^"SexDrive:HowDoMenandWomenCompare?".WebMD.RetrievedJune14,2015. ^RhodesG,ZebrowitzLA(2002).FacialAttractiveness–Evolutionary,Cognitive,andSocialPerspectives.Ablex.ISBN 978-1-56750-636-5. ^EdlerRJ(June2001)."Backgroundconsiderationstofacialaesthetics".JournalofOrthodontics.28(2):159–168.doi:10.1093/ortho/28.2.159.PMID 11395532. ^ZaidelDW,AardeSM,BaigK(April2005)."Appearanceofsymmetry,beauty,andhealthinhumanfaces"(PDF).BrainandCognition.57(3):261–263.doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2004.08.056.PMID 15780460.S2CID 5108094. ^"Puisten".Acneacademie.nl(inDutch).July1,2014.RetrievedDecember18,2016. ^DienerE,WolsicB,FujitaF(July1995)."Physicalattractivenessandsubjectivewell-being"(PDF).JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology.69(1):120–129.doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.1.120.RetrievedOctober4,2012.[permanentdeadlink] ^Alam,MohammadKhursheed;MohdNoor,NorFarid;Basri,Rehana;Yew,TanFo;Wen,TayHui(November12,2015)."MultiracialFacialGoldenRatioandEvaluationofFacialAppearance".PLOSONE.10(11):e0142914.Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1042914A.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0142914.ISSN 1932-6203.PMC 4642949.PMID 26562655. ^"TheMythThatWillNotGoAway".www.maa.org.RetrievedDecember23,2021. Externallinks[edit] MediarelatedtoPhysicalattractivenessatWikimediaCommons vteAestheticstopicsPhilosophers Abhinavagupta TheodorW.Adorno LeonBattistaAlberti ThomasAquinas HansUrsvonBalthasar AlexanderGottliebBaumgarten CliveBell BernardBosanquet EdwardBullough EdmundBurke R.G.Collingwood AnandaCoomaraswamy ArthurDanto GillesDeleuze JohnDewey DenisDiderot HubertDreyfus CurtJohnDucasse ThierrydeDuve RogerFry NelsonGoodman ClementGreenberg GeorgHegel MartinHeidegger DavidHume ImmanuelKant PaulKlee SusanneLanger TheodorLipps GyörgyLukács Jean-FrançoisLyotard JosephMargolis JacquesMaritain ThomasMunro FriedrichNietzsche JoséOrtegayGasset DewittH.Parker StephenPepper DavidPrall JacquesRancière AynRand LouisLavelle GeorgeLansingRaymond I.A.Richards GeorgeSantayana FriedrichSchiller ArthurSchopenhauer RogerScruton IrvingSinger RabindranathTagore GiorgioVasari MorrisWeitz JohannJoachimWinckelmann RichardWollheim more... Theories Classicism Evolutionaryaesthetics Historicism Modernism NewClassical Postmodernism Psychoanalytictheory Romanticism Symbolism more... Concepts Aestheticemotions Aestheticinterpretation Appropriation Artmanifesto Avant-garde Axiology Beauty Boredom Camp Comedy Creativity Cuteness Disgust Ecstasy Elegance Entertainment Eroticism Fashion Fun Gaze Harmony Judgement Kama Kitsch Lifeimitatingart Magnificence Mimesis Perception Quality Rasa Recreation Reverence Style Sthayibhava Sublime Taste Workofart Related Aestheticsofmusic Appliedaesthetics Architecture Art Artscriticism Feministaesthetics Gastronomy Historyofpainting Humour Japaneseaesthetics Literarymerit Mathematicalbeauty Mathematicsandarchitecture Mathematicsandart Medievalaesthetics Musictheory Neuroesthetics Painting Patternsinnature Philosophyofdesign Philosophyoffilm Philosophyofmusic Poetry Sculpture Theoryofpainting Theoryofart Tragedy Visualarts Index Outline Category Philosophyportal vteOutlineofhumansexualityPhysiologyandbiology Erection Insemination Intersex Libido Nocturnalemission Orgasm Femaleandmaleejaculation Pelvicthrust Pre-ejaculate Pregnancy Sexualarousal Sexualstimulation Healthandeducation Birthcontrol Condom MastersandJohnson Reproductivemedicine Andrology Gynaecology Urology Safesex Sexeducation Sextherapy(PLISSITmodel) Sexology Sexualdysfunction Erectiledysfunction Hypersexuality Hyposexuality Sexualmedicine Sexualsurrogate Sexuallytransmittedinfection Identityanddiversity Genderbinary Genderidentity Menwhohavesexwithmen Sexualidentity Sexualorientation Womenwhohavesexwithwomen Law Ageofconsent CriminaltransmissionofHIV Childsexualabuse Incest Indecentexposure Obscenity Sexualabuse Cybersextrafficking Rape Sextrafficking Sexualassault Sexualharassment Sexualmisconduct Sexualslavery Sexualviolence History BlueMovie Countercultureofthe1960s Feministsexwars GoldenAgeofPorn Historyoferoticdepictions Sexualrevolution Relationshipsandsociety Anarchismandlove/sex Extramaritalsex Familyplanning Flirting Freelove Marriage Modesty Polyamory Premaritalsex Promiscuity Romance Sex-positivemovement Sexualabstinence Sexualaddiction Sexualattraction Sexualcapital Sexualethics Sexualobjectification Sexualslang Bycountry AncientRome China India Japan Philippines SouthKorea UnitedStates Sexualactivities Conventionalsex Analsex Bareback BDSM Childsex Creampie Edging Eroticsexualdenial Fetishism Fingering Fisting Gangbang Groupsex Masturbation Mechanicsofsex Nipplestimulation Non-penetrativesex Facial Footfetishism Footjob Forcedorgasm Frot Handjob Mammaryintercourse Sumata Oralsex 69 Anilingus Cunnilingus Fellatio Irrumatio Paraphilia Pompoir Quickie Sexinspace Sexpositions Sexualfantasy Sexualfetishism Sexualintercourse Foreplay Sexualpenetration Swinging Tribadism Urethralintercourse Urolagnia Virtualsex Cybersex Erotictalk WetT-shirtcontest Sexindustry Red-lightdistrict Adultvideogames Erotica Pornography Filmactor Prostitution Survivalsex Sexmuseum Sexshop Sextourism Child Female Sexworker Sextoy doll Stripclub Webcammodel Religionandsexuality Buddhism Christiandemonology Daoism Islam Mormonism Sexmagic Humansexualityportal vteNudityNaturism Christiannaturism Freikörperkultur Gaynaturism Gymnosophy Naturistmagazines Naturistresort Anarchistnaturism Nuderecreation Nudebeach Nudeswimming Streaking Nakedyoga Publicbathing Sauna Massage Nakedparty Nudewedding Nudebeaches Clothing-optionalevents Depictionsofnudity Nude(art) Bodypainting NakedNews Nudemodeling(art) Nudityinfilm Nudephotography Nudephotography(art) Glamourphotography NudityinAmericantelevision Nudityinmusicvideos Nudityinadvertising Nudecalendar Nudityandsexuality Intimatepart Exhibitionism Voyeurism Anasyrma Candaulism Mooning Striptease Stripper feministstripper Softcorepornography Eroticphotography Sexualobjectification Issuesinsocialnudity Indecentexposure Obscenity Toplessness Topfreedom Canada UnitedStates Wardrobemalfunction Nudityandprotest Sexsegregation Breastfeedinginpublic Dresscode Clothinglawsbycountry Modesty Nudityinreligion Awrah Stripsearch Undresscode Barefoot Bylocation Africa Asia Europe NorthAmerica Oceania SouthAmerica Socialnudityadvocates KurtBarthel LeeBaxandall PaulBindrim IlsleyBoone HenryS.Huntington HeinrichPudor EltonRaymondShaw RichardUngewitter Seealso Historyofnudity Timelineofsocialnudity Nudityincombat Nudityclause Imageryofnudecelebrities Socialnudityorganizations CategoryPortal Authoritycontrol:Nationallibraries Germany UnitedStates Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Physical_attractiveness&oldid=1077390509" Categories:PhysicalattractivenessInterpersonalattractionHumansexualitySeductionHiddencategories:CS1:Julian–GregorianuncertaintyCS1:longvolumevalueCS1errors:missingtitleWebarchivetemplatewaybacklinksCS1Dutch-languagesources(nl)AllarticleswithdeadexternallinksArticleswithdeadexternallinksfromSeptember2017ArticleswithpermanentlydeadexternallinksArticleswithshortdescriptionShortdescriptionisdifferentfromWikidataUsemdydatesfromJanuary2022ArticlescontainingChinese-languagetextAllarticleslackingreliablereferencesArticleslackingreliablereferencesfromOctober2020WikipediaarticlesthataretootechnicalfromFebruary2022AllarticlesthataretootechnicalWikipediaarticlesneedingclarificationfromFebruary2022AllarticleswithunsourcedstatementsArticleswithunsourcedstatementsfromFebruary2022ArticleslackingreliablereferencesfromNovember2021ArticlescontainingJapanese-languagetextCommonscategorylinkfromWikidataArticleswithGNDidentifiersArticleswithLCCNidentifiers Navigationmenu Personaltools NotloggedinTalkContributionsCreateaccountLogin Namespaces ArticleTalk English expanded collapsed Views ReadEditViewhistory More expanded collapsed Search Navigation MainpageContentsCurrenteventsRandomarticleAboutWikipediaContactusDonate Contribute HelpLearntoeditCommunityportalRecentchangesUploadfile Tools WhatlinkshereRelatedchangesUploadfileSpecialpagesPermanentlinkPageinformationCitethispageWikidataitem Print/export DownloadasPDFPrintableversion Inotherprojects WikimediaCommons Languages العربيةDanskDeutschEspañolفارسیFrançaisՀայերենहिन्दीBahasaIndonesiaᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ/inuktitutItalianoLietuviųNederlandsPolskiPortuguêsSimpleEnglishSoomaaligaSvenskaTagalogTürkçeУкраїнськаاردوTiếngViệt中文 Editlinks

請為這篇文章評分？

延伸文章資訊

Facial attractiveness, developmental stability, and fluctuating ...

Overall, facial attractiveness negatively correlated with fluctuating asymmetry; the relation for...

Beyond the beauty of occlusion: medical masks increase ...

... thus result in lower ratings of facial attractiveness of the wearer. ... The results show tha...

Subjectivity and complexity of facial attractiveness - Nature

According to this hypothesis, a face is judged on average as attractive according to a set of inn...

Predictors of facial attractiveness and health in humans - Nature

Physical attractiveness - Wikipedia

Facial features

Physical attractiveness - Wikipedia

文章推薦指數： 80 %

請為這篇文章評分？

延伸文章資訊

最新文章

相關網站資訊

會有那麼一天chord

在學校月經沾到褲子

生理期防漏

Physical attractiveness - Wikipedia

文章推薦指數： 80 %

請為這篇文章評分？

延伸文章資訊

最新文章

相關網站資訊

會有那麼一天chord

在學校月經沾到褲子

生理期 防 漏

生理期防漏