Facial features Physicalattractiveness FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Aestheticassessmentofphysicaltraits VenusdeMiloattheLouvrehasbeendescribedasa"classicalvisionofbeauty".[1][2][3]However,oneexpertsuggestedthather"almostmatronlyrepresentation"wasmeanttoconveyan"impressiveappearance"ratherthan"idealfemalebeauty".[4]AdonisrestoredandcompletedbyFrançoisDuquesnoy,formerlyinthecollectionofCardinalMazarin(LouvreMuseum) Ishtar,Mesopotamiangoddessofsexualloveandwar.Thegoddesshasbeenassociatedwithsexuality,love,andfertility.[5][6][7] XiShi(西施),born506BC,wasoneoftheFourGreatBeautiesofancientChina.[8] Physicalattractivenessisthedegreetowhichaperson'sphysicalfeaturesareconsideredaestheticallypleasingorbeautiful.Thetermoftenimpliessexualattractivenessordesirability,butcanalsobedistinctfromeither.Therearemanyfactorswhichinfluenceoneperson'sattractiontoanother,withphysicalaspectsbeingoneofthem.Physicalattractionitselfincludesuniversalperceptionscommontoallhumanculturessuchasfacialsymmetry,[9]socioculturaldependentattributesandpersonalpreferencesuniquetoaparticularindividual.[10] Inmanycases,humanssubconsciouslyattributepositivecharacteristics,suchasintelligenceandhonesty,tophysicallyattractivepeople.[11]FromresearchdoneintheUnitedStatesandUnitedKingdom,itwasfoundthattheassociationbetweenintelligenceandphysicalattractivenessisstrongeramongmenthanamongwomen.[12]Evolutionarypsychologistshavetriedtoanswerwhyindividualswhoaremorephysicallyattractiveshouldalso,onaverage,bemoreintelligent,andhaveputforwardthenotionthatbothgeneralintelligenceandphysicalattractivenessmaybeindicatorsofunderlyinggeneticfitness.[12]Aperson'sphysicalcharacteristicscansignalcuestofertilityandhealth,[13][14]withstatisticalmodelingstudiesshowingthatthefacialshapevariablesthatreflectaspectsofphysiologicalhealth,includingbodyfatandbloodpressure,alsoinfluenceobservers'perceptionsofhealth.[15]Attendingtothesefactorsincreasesreproductivesuccess,furtheringtherepresentationofone'sgenesinthepopulation.[16] Heterosexualmen,onaverage,tendtobeattractedtowomenwhohaveayouthfulappearanceandexhibitfeaturessuchasasymmetricalface,[17]fullbreasts,fulllips,andalowwaist-hipratio.[18][19]Heterosexualwomen,onaverage,tendtobeattractedtomenwhoaretallerthantheyareandwhodisplayahighdegreeoffacialsymmetry,masculinefacialdimorphism,upperbodystrength,broadshoulders,arelativelynarrowwaist,andaV-shapedtorso.[20][21][22][23] Contents 1Generalcontributingfactors 1.1Facialfeatures 1.2Symmetry 1.3Bodyscent 1.4Genetics 1.5Youthfulness 1.6Leg-to-bodyratio 1.7Genitalia 1.8Skincolor 1.9Hands 1.10Height 2Male-specificfactors 2.1Sexualdimorphism 2.2Waist-to-chestratio 2.3Flatabdomen 2.4Musculature 2.5Bodyhair 2.6Facialhair 2.7Jawline 3Female-specificfactors 3.1Facialfeatures 3.1.1General 3.1.2Eyes 3.2Breasts 3.3Buttocks 3.4Bodymass 3.5Waist–hipratio 3.6Feetsize 3.7Hair 3.8Movementpatterns 3.9Fertility-drivenattractiveness 3.10Sexualornamentation 4Neuralcorrelatesofperceivingattractiveness 5Facialsimilarityandracialpreferences 6Groupattractivenesseffect 7Socialeffects 8Misconceptions 8.1TheGoldenRatio 9Seealso 10Notes 11References 12Externallinks Generalcontributingfactors[edit] TheManneristmovementwasnotafraidtoexaggeratebodyproportionsforaneffectconsideredattractive;Junoinaniche,engravingbyJacopoCaraglio,probablyofadrawingbyRossoFiorentino,1526 Generally,physicalattractivenesscanbeviewedfromanumberofperspectives;withuniversalperceptionsbeingcommontoallhumancultures,culturalandsocialaspects,andindividualsubjectivepreferences.Theperceptionofattractivenesscanhaveasignificanteffectonhowpeoplearejudgedintermsofemploymentorsocialopportunities,friendship,sexualbehavior,andmarriage.[24] Somephysicalfeaturesareattractiveinbothmenandwomen,particularlybodily[25]andfacialsymmetry,[26][27][28][29]althoughonecontraryreportsuggeststhat"absoluteflawlessness"withperfectsymmetrycanbe"disturbing".[30]Symmetrymaybeevolutionarilybeneficialasasignofhealthbecauseasymmetry"signalspastillnessorinjury".[31]Onestudysuggestedpeoplewereableto"gaugebeautyatasubliminallevel"byseeingonlyaglimpseofapictureforone-hundredthofasecond.[31]Otherimportantfactorsincludeyouthfulness,skinclarityandsmoothnessofskin;and"vividcolor"intheeyesandhair.[26]However,therearenumerousdifferencesbasedongender. A1921studyofthereportsofcollegestudentsregardingthosetraitsinindividualswhichmakeforattractivenessandrepulsivenessarguedthatstatictraits,suchasbeautyoruglinessoffeatures,holdapositionsubordinatetogroupsofphysicalelementslikeexpressivebehavior,affectionatedisposition,graceofmanner,aristocraticbearing,socialaccomplishmentsandpersonalhabits.[32] Grammerandcolleagueshaveidentifiedeight"pillars"ofbeauty:youthfulness,symmetry,averageness,sex-hormonemarkers,bodyodor,motion,skincomplexionandhairtexture.[33]TraditionallyinSamoa,bodyfatwasacceptableorattractive.[34] Facialfeatures[edit] AnItalianstudypublishedin2008studiedthepositionsofthe50soft-tissuelandmarksofthefacesof324whiteNorthernItalianadolescentboysandgirlstocomparethefeaturesofagroupof93"beautiful"individualsselectedbyacommercialcastingagencywiththoseofareferencegroupwithnormaldentofacialdimensionsandproportions.Theresearchfoundthat,incomparisonwiththereferencegroup,theattractiveadolescentstendedtohavethefollowingcharacteristics: theratiobetweenthevolumeoftheforeheadandthatofthetotalfacewaslarger; thenasalvolumewassmaller; thedistancebetweenoutercanthiwaslarger; totalfacialheightanddepthwerereduced. Sometendenciesdifferedbyageandsex: thefacialvolumewassmallerinolderattractiveboysthanintheirpeers,butbiggerinattractivegirls; thefacesofolderattractiveadolescentswerelessrounded(biggerratiobetweenfacialareaandvolume),butthereversewastrueforgirlsofanyage; attractiveolderboyshadsmalleranglesoffacialconvexitywithmoreacuteprofiles,whileingirlsthereversepatternwasfound; thenasolabialanglewasreducedingirls,butinolderboystheeffectwasreversed; olderattractiveboystendedtohavemoreprominentchins. Thestudyconcludedthatattractiveadolescentshadmoreneotenousandjuvenilefeatures,butolderattractiveboysalsoshowedtendenciestowardssexualdimorphism.[35] Contrarytocommonmisconception,onestudyfindsthatnon-severefacialscarringincreasesmaleattractivenessforshort-termrelationships.[36] Symmetry[edit] Symmetricalfacesandbodiesmaybesignsofgoodinheritancetowomenofchild-bearingageseekingtocreatehealthyoffspring.Studiessuggestwomenarelessattractedtomenwithasymmetricalfaces,[37]andsymmetricalfacescorrelatewithlongtermmentalperformance[38]andareanindicationthatamanhasexperienced"fewergeneticandenvironmentaldisturbancessuchasdiseases,toxins,malnutritionorgeneticmutations"whilegrowing.[38]Sinceachievingsymmetryisadifficulttaskduringhumangrowth,requiringbillionsofcellreproductionswhilemaintainingaparallelstructure,achievingsymmetryisavisiblesignalofgenetichealth. Studieshavealsosuggestedthatwomenatpeakfertilityweremorelikelytofantasizeaboutmenwithgreaterfacialsymmetry,[39]andotherstudieshavefoundthatmalesymmetrywastheonlyfactorthatcouldsignificantlypredictthelikelihoodofawomanexperiencingorgasmduringsex.Womenwithpartnerspossessinggreatersymmetryreportedsignificantlymorecopulatoryfemaleorgasmsthanwerereportedbywomenwithpartnerspossessinglowsymmetry,evenwithmanypotentialconfoundingvariablescontrolled.[40]Thisfindinghasbeenfoundtoholdacrossdifferentcultures.Ithasbeenarguedthatmasculinefacialdimorphism(inmen)andsymmetryinfacesaresignalsadvertisinggeneticqualityinpotentialmates.[41]Lowfacialandbodyfluctuatingasymmetrymayindicategoodhealthandintelligence,whicharedesirablefeatures.[42]Studieshavefoundthatwomenwhoperceivethemselvesasbeingmorephysicallyattractivearemorelikelytofavormenwithahigherdegreeoffacialsymmetry,thanarewomenwhoperceivethemselvesasbeinglessphysicallyattractive.[43]Ithasbeenfoundthatsymmetricalfemalesandmaleshaveatendencytobegintohavesexualintercourseatanearlierage,tohavemoresexualpartners,andtohavemoreone-nightstands.Theyarealsomorelikelytoengageininfidelity.[44]AstudyofquarterbacksintheAmericanNationalFootballLeaguefoundapositivecorrelationbetweenfacialsymmetryandsalaries.[27] Bodyscent[edit] Mainarticle:Bodyodor Double-blindstudiesfoundthatwomenpreferthescentofmenwhoareratedasfaciallyattractive.[45]Forexample,bothmalesandfemalesweremoreattractedtothenaturalscentofindividualswhohadbeenratedbyconsensusasfaciallyattractive.[46]Additionally,ithasalsobeenshownthatwomenhaveapreferenceforthescentofmenwithmoresymmetricalfaces,andthatwomen'spreferenceforthescentofmoresymmetricalmenisstrongestduringthemostfertileperiodoftheirmenstrualcycle.[47]Withinthesetofnormallycyclingwomen,individualwomen'spreferenceforthescentofmenwithhighfacialsymmetrycorrelatedwiththeirprobabilityofconception.[47]Men'sbodyodorisalsoaffectedbytheirdiet,withwomenexpressingpreferencesformalebodyodorassociatedwithincreaseddietaryfruitandvegetableandproteincontent,andreducedcarbohydratecontent.[48] Genetics[edit] Seealso:HeterozygoteadvantageandMajorhistocompatibilitycomplexandsexualselection Studieshaveexploredthegeneticbasisbehindsuchissuesasfacialsymmetryandbodyscentandhowtheyinfluencephysicalattraction.Inonestudyinwhichwomenworemen'sT-shirts,researchersfoundthatwomenweremoreattractedtothebodilyscentsinshirtsofmenwhohadadifferenttypeofgenesectionwithintheDNAcalledmajorhistocompatibilitycomplex(MHC).[49]MHCisalargegeneareawithintheDNAofvertebrateswhichencodesproteinsdealingwiththeimmunesystem[50]andwhichinfluencesindividualbodilyodors.[51]OnehypothesisisthathumansarenaturallyattractedbythesenseofsmellandtastetootherswithdissimilarMHCsections,perhapstoavoidsubsequentinbreedingwhileincreasingthegeneticdiversityofoffspring.[50]Furthermore,therearestudiesshowingthatwomen'snaturalattractionformenwithdissimilarimmuneprofilescanbedistortedwithuseofbirthcontrolpills.[51]OtherresearchfindingsinvolvingthegeneticfoundationsofattractionsuggestthatMHCheterozygositypositivelycorrelateswithmalefacialattractiveness.WomenjudgethefacesofmenwhoareheterozygousatallthreeMHClocitobemoreattractivethanthefacesofmenwhoarehomozygousatoneormoreoftheseloci.Additionally,asecondexperimentwithgenotypedwomenraters,foundthesepreferenceswereindependentofthedegreeofMHCsimilaritybetweenthemenandthefemalerater.WithMHCheterozygosityindependentlyseenasageneticadvantage,theresultssuggestthatfacialattractivenessinmenmaybeameasureofgeneticquality.[52][53]Generalgeneticheterozygosityhasbeendemonstratedtoberelatedtoattractivenessinthatpeoplewithmixedgeneticbackgrounds(i.e.,mixedracepeople)asseenasmoreattractivethanpeoplewithamoresimilargeneticparents.(i.e.,singleracepeople).[54]However,somestudieshavenotfoundthatmixedraceindividualsareratedasmoreattractive,andonefoundthatonlycertainmixeswereratedasmoreattractive;thisstudyarguedthatequatingracewithgeneticswasincorrectandarguedforsocialinfluencesasthecause.[55] Youthfulness[edit] Seealso:Agedisparityinsexualrelationships A2010OkCupidstudyon200,000ofitsmaleandfemaledatingsiteusersfoundthatwomenare,exceptthoseduringtheirearlytomid-twenties,opentorelationshipswithbothsomewhatolderandsomewhatyoungermen;theyhavealargerpotentialdatingpoolthanmenuntilage26.Atage20,women,ina"dramaticchange",beginsendingprivatemessagestosignificantlyoldermen.Atage29,theybecome"evenmoreopentooldermen".Maledesirabilitytowomenpeaksinthelate20sanddoesnotfallbelowtheaverageforallmenuntil36.[56]Otherresearchindicatesthatwomen,irrespectiveoftheirownage,areattractedtomenwhoarethesameageorolder.[57] FortheRomansespecially,"beardlessness"and"smoothyoungbodies"wereconsideredbeautifultobothmenandwomen.[58]ForGreekandRomanmen,themostdesirabletraitsofboysweretheir"youth"and"hairlessness".Pubescentboyswereconsideredasociallyappropriateobjectofmaledesire,whilepost-pubescentboyswereconsideredtobe"ἔξωροι"or"pasttheprime".[58]Thiswaslargelyinthecontextofpederasty(adultmaleinterestinadolescentboys).Today,menandwomen'sattitudestowardsmalebeautyhaschanged.Forexample,bodyhaironmenmayevenbepreferred(seebelow). A1984studysaidthatgaymentendtoprefergaymenofthesameageasidealpartners,buttherewasastatisticallysignificanteffect(p<0.05)ofmasculinity-femininity.Thestudysaidthatmorefemininementendedtopreferrelativelyoldermenthanthemselvesandmoremasculinementendedtopreferrelativelyyoungermenthanthemselves.[59] Cross-culturaldatashowsthatthereproductivesuccessofwomenistiedtotheiryouthandphysicalattractiveness[60]suchasthepre-industrialSamiwherethemostreproductivelysuccessfulwomenwere15yearsyoungerthantheirman.[61]Onestudycovering37culturesshowedthat,onaverage,awomanwas2.5yearsyoungerthanhermalepartner,withtheagedifferenceinNigeriaandZambiabeingatthefarextremeof6.5to7.5years.Asmenage,theytendtoseekamatewhoiseveryounger.[62] 25%ofeHarmony'smalecustomersovertheageof50requesttoonlybematchedwithwomenyoungerthan40.[63]A2010OkCupidstudy,of200,000usersfoundthatfemaledesirabilitytoitsmaleuserspeaksatage21,andfallsbelowtheaverageforallwomenat31.Afterage26,menhavealargerpotentialdatingpoolthanwomenonthesite;andbyage48,theirpoolisalmosttwiceaslarge.Themedian31-year-oldmaleusersearchesforwomenaged22to35,whilethemedian42-year-oldmalesearchesforwomen27to45.Theageskewisevengreaterwithmessagestootherusers;themedian30-year-oldmalemessagesteenagegirlsasoftenaswomenhisownage,whilemostlyignoringwomenafewyearsolderthanhim.Excludingthe10%mostand10%leastbeautifulofwomen,however,women'sattractivenessdoesnotchangebetween18and40,butifextremesarenotexcluded"There'snodoubtthatyounger[women]aremorephysicallyattractive–indeedinmanywaysbeautyandyouthareinextricable.That'swhymostofthemodelsyouseeinmagazinesareteenagers".[56] Pheromones(detectedbyfemalehormonemarkers)reflectsfemalefertilityandthereproductivevaluemean.[64]Asfemalesage,theestrogen-to-androgenproductionratiochangesandresultsinfemalefacestoappearmoreandmoremasculine(thusappearingless"attractive").[64]Inasmall(n=148)studyperformedintheUnitedStates,usingmalecollegestudentsatoneuniversity,themeanageexpressedasidealforawifewasfoundtobe16.87yearsold,while17.76wasthemeanidealageforabriefsexualencounter.However,thestudysetsupaframeworkwhere"taboosagainstsexwithyounggirls"arepurposelydiminished,andbiasedtheirsamplebyremovinganyparticipantovertheageof30,withameanparticipantageof19.83.[65]Inastudyofpeniletumescence,menwerefoundmostarousedbypicturesofyoungadultfemales.[66] Signalsoffertilityinwomenareoftenalsoseenassignalsofyouth.Theevolutionaryperspectiveproposestheideathatwhenitcomestosexualreproduction,theminimalparentalinvestmentrequiredbymengivesthemtheabilityandwanttosimplyreproduce'asmuchaspossible.'[67]Itthereforemakessensethatmenareattractedtothefeaturesinwomenwhichsignalyouthfulness,andthusfertility.[67]Theirchancesofreproductivesuccessaremuchhigherthantheywouldbeshouldtheypicksomeoneolder—andthereforelessfertile. Thismayexplainwhycombatingagedeclinesinattractivenessoccursfromayoungerageinwomenthaninmen.Forexample,theremovalofone'sbodyhairisconsideredaveryfemininethingtodo.[68]Thiscanbeexplainedbythefactthatagingresultsinraisedlevelsoftestosteroneandthus,bodyhairgrowth.Shavingrevertsone'sappearancetoamoreyouthfulstage[68]andalthoughthismaynotbeanhonestsignal,menwillinterpretthisasareflectionofincreasedfertilevalue.Researchsupportsthis,showinghairlessnesstoconsideredsexuallyattractivebymen.[69] Leg-to-bodyratio[edit] Mainarticle:Bodyproportions§ Legtobodyratio Thisdrawingoftwomalefiguresisaremakeofthedrawingoftheleg-to-bodyratio(LBR)extremesusedintheexperimentbySwamietal.(2006)tofindoutwhatLBRisconsideredthemostattractiveformenandwomen.ThefigurewiththelowestLBRandshortestlegsatlefthadthehighestaverageattractivenessratingswhereasthemalefigurewiththehighestLBRandlongestlegsatrighthadthelowestratingsfromBritishmenandwomen.[70] "Leg-to-bodyratio"isseenasindicatorofphysicalattractivenessbutthereappearstobenoaccepteddefinitionofleg-length:the'perineumtofloor'measure[a]isthemostusedbutarguablythedistancefromanklebonetoouterhipboneismorerigorous.[71]Onthis(latter)metric,themostattractiveratiooflegtobodyformen(asseenbyAmericanwomen)is1:1.[71]AJapanesestudyusingtheformermetricfoundthesameresultformaleattractivenessbutwomenwithlongerlegsthanbodywerejudgedtobemoreattractive.[72]Excessivedeviationsfromthemeanwereseenasindicativeofdisease.[72]Thisdrawingoftwofemalefiguresisaremakeofthedrawingoftheleg-to-bodyratio(LBR)extremesusedintheexperimentbySwamietal.(2006)tofindoutwhatLBRisconsideredthemostattractive.ThefemalefigurewiththelowestLBRandshortestlegsatlefthadthelowestaverageattractivenessratingswhereasthefigurewiththehighestLBRandlongestlegsatrighthadthehighestaverageattractivenessratingsfrombothBritishmenandwomen.[70] AstudyusingPolishparticipantsbySorokowskifound5%longerlegsthanaveragepersonlegtobodyratioforbothonmanandwomanwasconsideredmostattractive.[73]Thestudyconcludedthispreferencemightstemfromtheinfluenceofleggyrunwaymodels.[74]AnotherstudyusingBritishandAmericanparticipants,found"mid-ranging"leg-to-bodyratiostobemostideal.[75] AstudybySwamietal.ofBritishmaleandfemaleundergraduatesshowedapreferenceformenwithlegsaslongastherestoftheirbodyandwomenwith40%longerlegsthantherestoftheirbody.[70]TheresearcherconcludedthatthispreferencemightbeinfluencedbyAmericanculturewherelongleggedwomenareportrayedasmoreattractive.[70] MarcoBertaminicriticizedtheSwamietal.studyforusingapictureofthesamepersonwithdigitallyalteredleglengthswhichhefeltwouldmakethemodifiedimageappearunrealistic.[76]BertaminialsocriticizedtheSwamistudyforonlychangingtheleglengthwhilekeepingthearmlengthconstant.[76]Afteraccountingfortheseconcernsinhisownstudy,Bertamini'sstudywhichusedstickfiguresalsofoundapreferenceforwomenwithproportionatelylongerlegsthanmen.[76]WhenBertaminiinvestigatedtheissueofpossiblesexualdimorphismofleglength,hefoundtwosourcesthatindicatedthatmenusuallyhaveslightlyproportionatelylongerlegsthanwomenorthatdifferencesinleglengthproportionmaynotexistbetweenmenandwomen.[76]Followingthisreviewofexistingliteratureonthesubject,heconductedhisowncalculationsusingdatafrom1774menand2208women.Usingthisdata,hesimilarlyfoundthatmenusuallyhaveslightlyproportionatelylongerlegsthanwomenorthatdifferencesinleglengthproportionmaynotexistbetweenmenandwomen.Thesefindingsmadehimruleoutthepossibilitythatapreferenceforwomenwithproportionatelylongerlegsthanmenisdueproportionatelylongerlegsbeingasecondarysexcharacteristicofwomen.[76] Genitalia[edit] A2006study,of25,594heterosexualmenfoundthat"menwhoperceivedthemselvesashavingalargepenisweremoresatisfiedwiththeirownappearance".[77] A2014studycriticizedpreviousstudiesbasedonthefactthattheyreliedonimagesandusedtermssuchas"small","medium",and"large"whenaskingforfemalepreference.Thenewstudyused3Dmodelsofpenisesfromsizesof4inches(10 cm)longand2.5inches(6.4 cm)incircumferenceto8.5inches(22 cm)longand7inches(18 cm)incircumferenceandletthewomen"viewandhandle"them.Itwasfoundthatwomenoverestimatedtheactualsizeofthepenisestheyhaveexperimentedwithwhenaskedinafollow-upsurvey.Thestudyconcludedthat"womenonaveragepreferredthe6.5-inch(17 cm)penisinlengthbothforlong-termandforone-timepartners.Peniseswithlargergirthwerepreferredforone-timepartners."[78] Evidencefromvariousculturessuggeststhatheterosexualmentendtofindthesightofwomen'sgenitaliatobesexuallyarousing.[79] Skincolor[edit] Manuallaborerswhospentextendedperiodsoftimeoutsidedevelopedadarkerskintoneduetoexposuretothesun.Asaconsequence,anassociationbetweendarkskinandthelowerclassesdeveloped.Lightskinbecameanaestheticidealbecauseitsymbolizedwealth."Overtimesocietyattachedvariousmeaningstothesecoloreddifferences.Includingassumptionsaboutaperson'srace,socioeconomicclass,intelligence,andphysicalattractiveness."[80] Ascientificreviewpublishedin2011,identifiedfromavastbodyofempiricalresearchthatskincolouraswellasskintonetendtobepreferredastheyactasindicatorsofgoodhealth.Morespecifically,theseindicatorsarethoughttosuggesttopotentialmatesthatthebeholderhasstrongorgoodgenescapableoffightingoffdisease.[81] Morerecentresearchhassuggestedthatredderandyellowerskintones,[82]reflectinghigherlevelsofoxygenatedblood,[83]carotenoidandtoalesserextentmelaninpigment,andnetdietaryintakesoffruitandvegetables,[84]appearhealthier,andthereforemoreattractive.[85]Mainarticle:Humanskincolor§ Socialstatusandracism LesDeuxPerlesFernandLeQuesne(Thetwopearls,1889).Thispaintingwasintendedto"contrastaCaucasianwithanAfricanbeauty".Inthepainting,theblackwomanrepresentsthebeautyofablackpearlandthewhitewomanrepresentsthebeautyofawhitepearl.[86] Apreferenceforlighter-skinnedwomenhasbeendocumentedacrossmanycultures.[87][88]A2010studyfoundapreferenceforlighter-skinnedwomeninNewZealandandCalifornia.[89]InpartsofAfricaandAsia,skinbleachingiscommon.[90]Theuniversalityofthispreferencehoweverhasbeenquestionedbya2006studyonmenoftheBikossotribeinCameroonwhichfoundnoconsistentpreferenceforeitherlighterordarkerskinnedwomen.[91]Therelationshipbetweenattractivenessandskincolourmayalsointersectwithethnicityandpriorexperience.[92] Skincolorpreferencesmayshiftovertime,asinWesternculture,wheretannedskinusedtobeassociatedwiththesun-exposedmanuallaborofthelower-class,butsincethemid-20thcenturyithasgenerallybeenconsideredmoreattractiveandhealthierthanbefore,withsuntanningbecomingfashionable.[93][94][95][96][97] Skinradianceorglowingskinmayinfluenceperceptionofbeautyandphysicalattractiveness.[98][99] Hands[edit] Handshavebeenfoundtobephysicallyattractive.[100]Thetypeofhandsthatarephysicallyattractivearethosewithlongerindexandringfingers.[101]Menhaveasmallerindex-to-ring-fingerratiothanwomen.Thegenderdifferencesintheratiobetweentheindexandringfingersaresaidtobeinfluencedbyexposuretotestosteronewithinthewomb.[102]Inastudywhereparticipantswereshowncomputer-basedimagesofhands,maleparticipantsfoundfemininehandswithasmallerindexfingermoreattractive.Whereasfemalesfoundmasculinehandswithalongerringfingermoreattractive.Thestudysuggeststhatfingerlengthhasaneffectonphysicalattractionbecauseitgivesindicationofthedesirablesex-hormonedependenttraitswhichonemaypossess.[101]Anotherstudyfoundthataverageness,healthinessoftheskin,howfatthehandsappeartobe,andthegroomingofthehands,alleffecttheattractivenessofhands.[103]Whatismeantbyaveragenessisthedegreetowhichthehandslooklikeanaverageofthehandsinthepopulation.Averagelookinghandsgiveanindicationofanindividual'shealth(becausetherearenoabnormalities).Thehealthierlookingtheskinonthehands,themoreattractivetheyappear.Reasonsgivenforthissayskinhealthmayreflectanindividual'soverallhealth.Healthyskincanshowthatsomeoneisfreefromillnessbecausesomeillnesseshaveabadeffectonthelookofskin.Thesefeaturesarefoundattractivebecausetheyshowthatthepersonhasgoodgenesandisthereforeasuitablematetoreproducewith.Skinhealthmayalsogiveanindicationofsocioeconomicstatus,asroughhandsmayindicatealowpayinglaboriousjob.Lowsocioeconomicstatusmightshowthatsomeonedoesnothaveresourcestoprovidefortheoffspring,thereforethisislessattractive.Themorefatthehandsappear,thelessattractivetheyare.Thisisbecauseoftheco-morbidityassociatedwithobesity.Ifsomeoneisoverfat,theymayhaveanotherdisease,whichmeanstheymaynotbeabletoproducehealthyoffspring.Theattractivenessofthehandsalsogivesanindicationofotherfeaturesoftheindividual,peoplewithmoreattractivehandshavebeenfoundtobetallerandslimmer.[100]Inmostofthesehandattractivenessstudiesonlywhite,Europeanhandswereusedandtheparticipantswereintheagerangebetween18and26.So,theattractivenessofnon-whitehandsandofdifferentagegroupswasnottested.Also,thepeoplewhoratedthehandattractivenesswerewhiteEuropean,sotheirratingsmaynotrepresenthowindividualsofotherskincoloursandcultureswouldratethehands. Height[edit] Females'sexualattractiontowardsmalesmaybedeterminedbytheheightoftheman.[104]TheonlinedatingWebsiteeHarmonyonlymatcheswomenwithmentallerthanthemselves,becauseofcomplaintsfromwomenmatchedwithshortermen.[63] Otherstudieshaveshownthatheterosexualwomenoftenprefermentallerthantheyare,ratherthanamanwithaboveaverageheight.Whilewomenusuallydesirementobeatleastthesameheightasthemselvesortaller,severalotherfactorsalsodeterminemaleattractiveness,andthemale-tallernormisnotuniversal.[105]Forexample,tallerwomenaremorelikelytorelaxthe"tallermale"normthanshorterwomen.[106]Furthermore,professorAdamEyre-Walker,fromtheUniversityofSussex,hasstatedthatthereis,asyet,noevidencethatthesepreferencesareevolutionarypreferences,asopposedtomerelyculturalpreferences.[107]Still,theculturalperceivedattractivenesspreferencesfortallermenarepowerfulandconfirmedbymultiplestudies.Onestudyofspeed-datersbyStulpfoundthat"womenweremostlikelytochoose[men]25cmtallerthanthemselves,whereasmenweremostlikelytochoosewomenonly7cmshorterthanthemselves".[108] Additionally,womenseemmorereceptivetoanerectposturethanmen,thoughbothpreferitasanelementwithinbeauty.[109]Accordingtoonestudy(YeeN.,2002),gaymenwhoidentifyas"onlytops"tendtoprefershortermen,whilegaymenwhoidentifyas"onlybottoms"tendtoprefertallermen.[110] InromancesinMiddleEnglishliterature,allofthe"ideal"maleheroesaretall,andthevastmajorityofthe"valiant"maleheroesaretalltoo.[111] Mostmentendtobetallerthantheirfemalepartners.[19]Ithasbeenfoundthat,inWesternsocieties,mostmenpreferwomenshorterthanthemselves.[112]Havingsaidthis,heightisamoreimportantfactorforawomanwhenchoosingamanthanitisforamanchoosingawoman.[113]Westernmentendtoviewwomentallerthanthemselvesaslessattractive,[112]andpeopleviewheterosexualcoupleswherethewomanistallertobelessideal.[112]Womenwhoare0.7to1.7standarddeviationsbelowthemeanfemaleheighthavebeenreportedtobethemostreproductivelysuccessful,[114]sincefewertallwomengetmarriedcomparedtoshorterwomen.[112]However,inotherethnicgroups,suchastheHadzapeoplefromTanzania,astudyhasfoundthatheightisirrelevantinchoosingamate.[105]AnotherstudyfoundthesamepreferenceinruralGambia.[112] InMiddleEnglishliterature,"tallness"isacharacteristicofideallybeautifulwomen.[111]: 101 TheBritishFashionModelAgentsAssociation(BFMA)saysthatfemalemodelsshouldbeatleast5 ft8 in(1.73 m)tall.[115] Male-specificfactors[edit] Women,onaverage,tendtobemoreattractedtomenwhohavearelativelynarrowwaist,aV-shapedtorso,andbroadshoulders.Womenalsotendtobemoreattractedtomenwhoaretallerthantheyare,anddisplayahighdegreeoffacialsymmetry,aswellasrelativelymasculinefacialdimorphism.[20][21]Women,regardlessofsexualorientation,tendtobelessinterestedinapartner'sphysicalattractivenessthanmen.[116] Sexualdimorphism[edit] Mainarticle:Sexualdimorphism Thedegreeofdifferencesbetweenmaleandfemaleanatomicaltraitsiscalledsexualdimorphism.Femalerespondentsinthefollicularphaseoftheirmenstrualcycleweresignificantlymorelikelytochooseamasculinefacethanthoseinmensesandlutealphases,[117](orinthosetakinghormonalcontraception).[20][21][118][119]Thisdistinctionsupportsthesexysonhypothesis,whichpositsthatitisevolutionarilyadvantageousforwomentoselectpotentialfatherswhoaremoregeneticallyattractive,[120]ratherthanthebestcaregivers.[121]However,women'slikelinesstoexertefforttoviewmalefacesdoesnotseemtodependontheirmasculinity,buttoageneralincreasewithwomen'stestosteronelevels.[122] Itissuggestedthatthemasculinityoffacialfeaturesisareliableindicationofgoodhealth,or,alternatively,thatmasculine-lookingmalesaremorelikelytoachievehighstatus.[123]However,thecorrelationbetweenattractivefacialfeaturesandhealthhasbeenquestioned.[124]Socioculturalfactors,suchasself-perceivedattractiveness,statusinarelationshipanddegreeofgender-conformity,havebeenreportedtoplayaroleinfemalepreferencesformalefaces.[125]Studieshavefoundthatwomenwhoperceivethemselvesasphysicallyattractivearemorelikelytochoosemenwithmasculinefacialdimorphism,thanarewomenwhoperceivethemselvesasphysicallyunattractive.[43]Inmen,facialmasculinitysignificantlycorrelateswithfacialsymmetry–ithasbeensuggestedthatbotharesignalsofdevelopmentalstabilityandgenetichealth.[126]Onestudycalledintoquestiontheimportanceoffacialmasculinityinphysicalattractivenessinmen,arguingthatwhenperceivedhealth,whichisfactoredintofacialmasculinity,isdiscounteditmakeslittledifferenceinphysicalattractiveness.[127]Inacross-countrystudyinvolving4,794womenintheirearlytwenties,adifferencewasfoundinwomen'saverage"masculinitypreference"betweencountries.[128][129] Astudyfoundthatthesamegeneticfactorscausefacialmasculinityinbothmalesandfemalessuchthatamalewithamoremasculinefacewouldlikelyhaveasisterwithamoremasculinefaceduetothesiblingshavingsharedgenes.Thestudyalsofoundthat,althoughfemalefacesthatweremorefemininewerejudgedtobemoreattractive,therewasnoassociationbetweenmalefacialmasculinityandmalefacialattractivenessforfemalejudges.Withthesefindings,thestudyreasonedthatifawomanweretoreproducewithamanwithamoremasculineface,thenherdaughterswouldalsoinheritamoremasculineface,makingthedaughterslessattractive.Thestudyconcludedthattheremustbeotherfactorsthatadvantagethegeneticsformasculinemalefacestooffsettheirreproductivedisadvantageintermsof"health","fertility"and"facialattractiveness"whenthesamegeneticsarepresentinfemales.Thestudyreasonedthatthe"selectiveadvantage"formasculinemalefacesmust"have(orhad)"beenduetosomefactorthatisnotdirectlytiedtofemaleperceptionsofmalefacialattractiveness.[130] Inastudyof447gaymeninChina,researcherssaidthattopspreferredfeminizedmalefaces,bottomspreferredmasculinizedmalefacesandversatileshadnopreferenceforeitherfeminizedormasculinizedmalefaces.[131] Inpre-modernChineseliterature,theidealmanincaizijiarenromanceswassaidtohave"rosylips,sparklingwhiteteeth"anda"jasper-likeface"(Chinese:唇紅齒白、面若冠玉).[132][133] InMiddleEnglishliterature,abeautifulmanshouldhavealong,broadandstrongface.[111] Waist-to-chestratio[edit] Thephysiqueofaslimwaist,broadshouldersandmuscularchestareoftenfoundtobeattractivetobothfemalesandmales.[134]Furtherresearchhasshownthat,whenchoosingamate,thetraitsfemaleslookforindicatehighersocialstatus,suchasdominance,resources,andprotection.[135]Anindicatorofhealthinmales(acontributingfactortophysicalattractiveness)istheandroidfatdistributionpatternwhichiscategorizedasmorefatdistributedontheupperbodyandabdomen,commonlyreferredtoasthe"Vshape."[135]Whenaskedtorateothermen,bothheterosexualandhomosexualmenfoundlowwaist-to-chestratios(WCR)tobemoreattractiveonothermen,withthegaymenshowingapreferenceforlowerWCR(moreV-shaped)thanthestraightmen.[136] Otherresearchersfoundwaist-to-chestratiothelargestdeterminantofmaleattractiveness,withbodymassindexandwaist-to-hiprationotassignificant.[137] Womenfocusprimarilyontheratiowaisttochestormorespecificallywaisttoshoulder.Thisisanalogoustothewaisttohipratio(WHR)thatmenprefer.Keybodyimageforamanintheeyesofawomanwouldincludebigshoulders,chest,andupperback,andaslimwaistarea.[138][better source needed]Researchhasadditionallyshownthatcollegemaleshadabettersatisfactionwiththeirbodythancollegefemales.[139]Theresearchalsofoundthatwhenacollegefemale'swaisttohipratiowentup,theirbodyimagesatisfactiondecreased.[139] SomeresearchhasshownthatbodyweightmayhaveastrongereffectthanWHRwhenitcomestoperceivingattractivenessoftheoppositesex.Itwasfoundthatwaisttohipratioplayedasmallerroleinbodypreferencethanbodyweightinregardstobothsexes.[140] PsychologistsVirenSwamiandMartinJ.Toveecomparedfemalepreferenceformaleattractivenesscrossculturally,betweenBritainandMalaysia.TheyfoundthatfemalesplacedmoreimportanceonWCR(andthereforebodyshape)inurbanareasofBritainandMalaysia,whilefemalesinruralareasplacedmoreimportanceonBMI(thereforeweightandbodysize).BothWCRandBMIareindicativeofmalestatusandabilitytoprovideforoffspring,asnotedbyevolutionarytheory.[141] FemaleshavebeenfoundtodesiremalesthatarenormalweightandhavetheaverageWHRforamale.Femalesviewthesemalesasattractiveandhealthy.MaleswhohadtheaverageWHRbutwereoverweightorunderweightarenotperceivedasattractivetofemales.ThissuggeststhatWHRisnotamajorfactorinmaleattractiveness,butacombinationofbodyweightandatypicalmaleWHRseemtobethemostattractive.Researchhasshownthatmenwhohaveahigherwaisttohipratioandahighersalaryareperceivedasmoreattractivetowomen.[142] Flatabdomen[edit] A1982studyfoundthatanabdomenthatprotrudeswasthe"leastattractive"traitformen.[143] InMiddleEnglishliterature,abeautifulmanshouldhaveaflatabdomen.[111] Musculature[edit] Seealso:Bodybuilding Men'sbodiesportrayedinmagazinesmarketedtomenaremoremuscularthanthemen'sbodiesportrayedinmagazinesmarketedtowomen.Fromthis,somehaveconcludedthatmenperceiveamoremuscularmalebodytobeideal,asdistinctfromawoman'sidealmale,whichislessmuscularthanwhatmenperceivetobeideal.[144]Thisisduetothewithin-genderprestigegrantedbyincreasedmuscularityandwithin-gendercompetitionforincreasedmuscularity.[144]Menperceivetheattractivenessoftheirownmusculaturebyhowcloselytheirbodiesresemblethe"muscleman."[145]This"muscleman"idealischaracterizedbylargemusculararms,especiallybiceps,alargemuscularchestthattaperstotheirwaistandbroadshoulders.[145]AmongAustralianuniversitystudents,themalebodycompositionfoundtobemostattractive(12.16 kgfat,63.27 kgmuscle)wasinlinewiththecompositionthatwasperceivedashealthiest,andwaswellwithinthehealthyrange.[146] InastudyofstatedprofilepreferencesonMatch.com,agreaterpercentageofgaymenthanlesbiansselectedtheiridealpartner'sbodytypeas"AthleticandToned"asopposedtotheothertwooptionsof"Average"or"Overweight".[147] Inpre-modernChineseliterature,suchasinRomanceoftheWesternChamber,atypeofmasculinitycalled"scholarmasculinity"isdepictedwhereinthe"idealmalelover"is"weak,vulnerable,feminine,andpedantic".[132] InMiddleEnglishliterature,abeautifulmantypicallyhasthick,broadshoulders,asquareandmuscularchest,amuscularback,strongsidesthattapertoasmallwaist,largehandsandarmsandlegswithhugemuscles.[111] Bodyhair[edit] StudiesbasedintheUnitedStates,NewZealand,andChinahaveshownthatwomenratemenwithnotrunk(chestandabdominal)hairasmostattractive,andthatattractivenessratingsdeclineashairinessincreases.[148][149]Anotherstudy,however,foundthatmoderateamountsoftrunkhaironmenwasmostattractive,tothesampleofBritishandSriLankanwomen.[150]Further,adegreeofhirsuteness(hairiness)andawaist-to-shoulderratioof0.6isoftenpreferredwhencombinedwithamuscularphysique.[150] InastudyusingFinnishwomen,womenwithhairyfathersweremorelikelytopreferhairymen,suggestingthatpreferenceforhairymenistheresultofeithergeneticsorimprinting.[151]Amonggaymen,anotherstudy(YeeN.,2002)reportedgaymaleswhoidentifyas"onlytops"preferlesshairymen,whilegaymaleswhoidentifyas"onlybottoms"preferhairiermen.[110] Facialhair[edit] Onestudyshowsthatmenwithfacialhaircoveringthecheeks,upperlip,andlowerjawwereperceivedasmorephysicallyattractivethanmenwithpatchyfacialhair.[152]Inthisstudy,men'sfacialhairwassplitintofourcategories,eachdifferinginthethicknessandcoverage:verylight,light,medium,andheavy.Lightfacialhairwasratedasthemostattractive,followedbymedium,heavy,andtheleastattractivewas'verylight'.Thisstudysuggeststhatsomefacialhairisbetterthannonebecauseitshowsthemasculinedevelopmentasbeardgrowthrequirestheconversionoftestosterone.TheproblemwiththisstudyisitonlylookedatthefacialhairofEuropeanmenwithbrownhair.So,theresultsmaynotrepresentmenofallethnicitiesandhaircolours.Adifferentstudyfoundwomenaremoreattractedtoclean-shavenfacesthanbeardedfaces.[153] Jawline[edit] Thissectionmaybetootechnicalformostreaderstounderstand.Pleasehelpimproveittomakeitunderstandabletonon-experts,withoutremovingthetechnicaldetails.(February2022)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Mainarticle:mandible Amalejawangle,seenasattractiveamongpeopleofEuropeandescent,mayhavethefollowingfeatures:130°inprofileview;interregional[clarificationneeded]widthsimilartofacialwidth;verticalpositioninfrontalviewatthecornersofthemouthoratleastnotbelowthelowerlip;jawlineslopeinfrontalviewnearlyparallelto(withamaximum15°downwarddeviationfrom)alineextendingfromthelateralcanthustothealare;ascendingramusslope65°–75°totheFrankfurthorizontal;andcurvatureinobliqueviewvisible.[citationneeded]Becauseitgeneratesthegonialangle,theramushasafunctioninattractiveness.[citationneeded]Thegonialorjawangleistheangleformedbytheramusandtherestofthemandible.Itcanrangefrom90to140degrees,withthepopulationaveragebeing128+/-2.36degreesformalesand126+/-2.41degreesforfemales.Larger,moreobtusegonialanglesresultinarounder,feminineappearance,whereasmoreacutegonialanglesresultinsquare,masculinefaces.[154][155] Thisexactratioisnotseenasidealforeveryethnicgroup.Mostresearchshowsthatattractivebigonialwidthmeasurementshavesimilarities,butthejuttingsquarechinisaprominentlyEuropean-heritagetrait –whichmeansitshouldnotbeheldasauniversalindicatorofattractiveness.[156][157]Menwithlowsubmentalfatwereviewedtohave"betterjawlines"andamore"youthfullook".[158] Female-specificfactors[edit] Researchindicatesthatheterosexualmentendtobeattractedtoyoung[62]andbeautifulwomen[159]withbodilysymmetry.[160]Ratherthandecreasingit,modernityhasonlyincreasedtheemphasismenplaceonwomen'slooks.[161]Evolutionarypsychologistsattributesuchattractiontoanevaluationofthefertilitypotentialinaprospectivemate.[62] Facialfeatures[edit] General[edit] Seealso:CutenessandAverageness AUniversityofTorontostudyfoundthatthefacialproportionsofJessicaAlbawereclosetotheaverageofallfemaleprofiles. NamieAmuroinspiredthesmall-facefadinJapanwhichcausedJapanesewomentobuybeautyproductssuchasmasksandcreamstotrytoobtainasmallfacelikehers.[162] Researchhasattemptedtodeterminewhichfacialfeaturescommunicateattractiveness.Facialsymmetryhasbeenshowntobeconsideredattractiveinwomen,[163][164]andmenhavebeenfoundtopreferfulllips,[165]highforehead,broadface,smallchin,smallnose,shortandnarrowjaw,highcheekbones,[37][166]clearandsmoothskin,andwide-seteyes.[62]Theshapeofthefaceintermsof"howeverythinghangstogether"isanimportantdeterminantofbeauty.[167]Womenwiththick,darklimbalringsintheireyeshavealsobeenfoundtobemoreattractive.Theexplanationgivenisthatbecausetheringtendstofadewithageandmedicalproblems,aprominentlimbalringgivesanhonestindicatorofyouth.[168] InPersianliterature,beautifulwomenaresaidtohavenoseslikehazelnuts.[169]InArabiansocietyintheMiddleAges,acomponentofthefemalebeautyidealwasforwomentohavestraightandfinenoses.[170]InJewishRabbinicliterature,therabbisconsideredadelicatenosetobetheidealtypeofnoseforwomen.[171]InJapan,duringtheEdoperiod,acomponentofthefemalebeautyidealwasforwomentohavetallnoseswhichwerestraightandnot"tootall".[172] Inacross-culturalstudy,moreneotenized(i.e.,youthfullooking)femalefaceswerefoundtobemostattractivetomenwhilelessneotenizedfemalefaceswerefoundtobelessattractivetomen,regardlessofthefemales'actualage.[173]InastudyofItalianwomenwhohavewonbeautycompetitions,itwasfoundthattheirfaceshadmore"babyish"(pedomorphic)traitsthanthoseofthe"normal"womenusedasareference.[174] Inacross-culturalstudy,Marcinkowskaetal.saidthat18-to45-year-oldheterosexualmeninall28countriessurveyedpreferredphotographsof18-to24-year-oldwhitewomenwhosefaceswerefeminizedusingfacialimageeditingsoftwareoverfacesof18-to24-year-oldwhitewomenthatweremasculinizedusingthatsoftware,butthereweredifferencesinpreferencesforfemininityacrosscountries.ThehighertheNationalHealthIndexofacountry,themorewerethefeminizedfacespreferredoverthemasculinizedfaces.Amongthecountriessurveyed,JapanhadthehighestfemininitypreferenceandNepalhadthelowestfemininitypreference.[175] MichaelR.CunninghamoftheDepartmentofPsychologyattheUniversityofLouisvillefound,usingapanelofEastAsian,HispanicandWhitejudges,thattheAsian,HispanicandWhitefemalefacesfoundmostattractivewerethosethathad"neonatelargeeyes,greaterdistancebetweeneyes,andsmallnoses"[176]andhisstudyledhimtoconcludethat"largeeyes"werethemost"effective"ofthe"neonatecues".[176]Cunninghamalsosaidthat"shiny"hairmaybeindicativeof"neonatevitality".[176]Usingapanelofblacksandwhitesasjudges,Cunninghamfoundmoreneotenousfaceswereperceivedashavingbothhigher"femininity"and"sociability".[176]Incontrast,Cunninghamfoundthatfacesthatwere"lowinneoteny"werejudgedas"intimidating".[176]Cunninghamnoteda"difference"inthepreferencesofAsianandwhitejudgeswithAsianjudgespreferringwomenwith"lessmaturefaces"andsmallermouthsthantheWhitejudges.[176]Cunninghamhypothesizedthatthisdifferenceinpreferencemaystemfrom"ethnocentrism"since"Asianfacespossessthosequalities",soCunninghamre-analyzedthedatawith"11Asiantargetsexcluded"andconcludedthat"ethnocentrismwasnotaprimarydeterminantofAsianpreferences."[176]Ratherthanfindingevidenceforpurely"neonate"facesbeingmostappealing,Cunninghamfoundfaceswith"sexually-mature"featuresatthe"periphery"ofthefacecombinedwith"neonate"featuresinthe"centeroftheface"mostappealinginmenandwomen.[176]Uponanalyzingtheresultsofhisstudy,Cunninghamconcludedthatpreferencefor"neonatefeaturesmaydisplaytheleastcross-culturalvariability"intermsof"attractivenessratings"[176]and,inanotherstudy,Cunninghamconcludedthatthereexistsalargeagreementonthecharacteristicsofanattractiveface.[177][178] Incomputerfaceaveragingtests,womenwithaveragedfaceshavebeenshowntobeconsideredmoreattractive.[29][179]Thisispossiblyduetoaveragefeaturesbeingmorefamiliarand,therefore,morecomfortable.[163] CommentingontheprevalenceofwhitenessinsupposedbeautyidealsinhisbookWhiteLies:RaceandtheMythofWhiteness,MauriceBergerstatesthattheschematicrenderingintheidealizedfaceofastudyconductedwithAmericansubjectshad"straighthair,""lightskin,""almond-shapedeyes,""thin,archedeyebrows,""along,thinnose,closelysetandtinynostrils"and"alargemouthandthinlips",[180]thoughtheauthorofthestudystatedthattherewasconsistencybetweenhisresultsandthoseconductedonotherraces.ScholarLiuJieyusaysinthearticleWhiteCollarBeauties,"Thecriterionofbeautyisbotharbitraryandgendered.Theimplicitconsensusisthatwomenwhohavefairskinandaslimfigurewithsymmetricalfacialfeaturesarepretty."Hesaysthatalloftheserequirementsaresociallyconstructedandforcepeopletochangethemselvestofitthesecriteria.[181] Therearevariousopposingprinciplesoffemalebeautyincludingprettinessandrarity.Soonaverage,symmetricalfeaturesareoneideal,whileunusual,stand-outfeaturesareanother.[182][better source needed][183]AstudyperformedbytheUniversityofTorontofoundthatthemostattractivefacialdimensionswerethosefoundintheaveragefemaleface.However,thatparticularUniversityofTorontostudylookedonlyatwhitewomen.[184] AstudythatusedChinese,MalayandIndianjudgessaidthatChinesewomenwithorthognathismwherethemouthisflatandin-linewiththerestofthefacewerejudgedtobethemostattractiveandChinesewomenwithaprotrudingmandiblewherethejawprojectsoutwardwerejudgedtobetheleastattractive.[185] A2011study,byWilkins,ChanandKaiserfoundcorrelationsbetweenperceivedfemininityandattractiveness,thatis,women'sfaceswhichwereseenasmorefemininewerejudgedbybothmenandwomentobemoreattractive.[186] AcomponentofthefemalebeautyidealinPersianliteratureisforwomentohavefaceslikeafullmoon.[169][187][188] InArabiansocietyintheMiddleAges,acomponentofthefemalebeautyidealwasforwomentohaveroundfaceswhichwerelikea"fullmoon".[170] InJapan,duringtheEdoperiod,acomponentofthefemalebeautyidealwasforwomentohavelongandnarrowfaceswhichwereshapedlikeovals.[172] InJewishRabbinicliterature,therabbisconsideredfulllipstobetheidealtypeoflipsforwomen.[171] Historically,inChineseandJapaneseliterature,thefeminineidealwassaidtoincludesmalllips.[189]Womenwouldpainttheirlipsthinnerandnarrowertoalignwiththisideal.[190][191] ClassicalPersianliterature,paintings,andminiaturesportrayedtraitssuchaslongblackcurlyhair,asmallmouth,longarchedeyebrows,largealmondshapedeyes,asmallnose,andbeautyspotsasbeingbeautifulforwomen.[192] Eyes[edit] ThroughtheEastAsianblepharoplastycosmeticsurgeryprocedure,Asianwomencanpermanentlyalterthestructureoftheireyelid.SomepeoplehavearguedthatthisalterationisdonetoresemblethestructureofaWesterneyelid[193]whileotherpeoplehavearguedthatthisisgenerallydonesolelytoemulatetheappearanceofnaturallyoccurringAsiandoubleeyelids.[194] AstudythatinvestigatedwhetherornotaneyelidcreasemakesChinese-descentwomenmoreattractiveusingphoto-manipulatedphotographsofyoungChinese-descentwomen'seyesfoundthatthe"mediumuppereyelidcrease"wasconsideredmostattractivebyallthreegroupsofbothsexes:whitepeople,ChineseandTaiwanesenationalstogetherasagroup,andTaiwaneseandChineseAmericanstogetherasagroup.Similarly,allthreegroupsofbothgendersfoundtheabsenceofaneyecreasetobeleastattractiveonChinesewomen.[195] Inthelatesixteenthcentury,Japanesepeopleconsideredepicanthicfoldstobebeautiful.[196] AstudythatusedRussian,American,Brazilian,Aché,andHiwiraters,foundthattheonlystrongdistinguisherbetweenmenandwomen'sfaceswaswidereyesrelativetofacialheightforwomen,andthistraitconsistentlypredictedattractivenessratingsforwomen.[197] InArabiansocietyintheMiddleAges,acomponentofthefemalebeautyidealwasforwomentohavedarkblackeyeswhicharelargeandlongandintheshapeofalmonds.Furthermore,theeyesshouldbelustrous,andtheyshouldhavelongeyelashes.[170] Asourcewrittenin1823,saidthatacomponentofthePersianfemalebeautyidealwasforwomentohavelargeeyeswhichareblackincolor.[187]InPersianliterature,beautifulwomenaresaidtohaveeyesthatareshapedlikealmonds.[169] InChinese,thephrase"lucentirises,lustrousteeth"(Chinese:明眸皓齒)isusedtodescribeabeautifulwomanwith"cleareyes"and"well-aligned,whiteteeth",andthephrase"moth-feelereyebrows"(Chinese:蛾眉)isusedtodenoteabeautifulwomanbydescribinghereyebrowsasbeingthinandarchedlikemothantennae.IntheChinesetextTheGrottooftheImmortals(Chinese:遊仙窟)writtenduringtheTangdynastyperiod,narroweyeswerethepreferredtypeofeyesforwomen,and,intheChinesetextJeweledChamberSecrets(Chinese:玉房秘訣)fromtheSixDynastiesperiod,theidealwomanwasdescribedashavingsmalleyes.[172] InJapan,duringtheEdoperiod,onepieceofevidence,theappearanceofthe"formalwife"ofTokugawaIesadaasdeterminedby"boneanthropologist"SuzukiHisashi,indicatesthatlargeeyeswereconsideredattractiveforwomen,but,anotherpieceofevidence,the1813JapanesetextCustoms,Manners,andFashionsoftheCapital(Japanese:都風俗化粧伝),indicatesthatlargeeyeswerenotconsideredattractiveforwomen.[172] Breasts[edit] Seealso:Breastfetishism Researchhasshownthatmostheterosexualmenenjoythesightoffemalebreasts,[198]withapreferenceforlarge,firmbreasts.[199]However,acontradictorystudyofBritishundergraduatesfoundyoungermenpreferredsmallbreastsonwomen.[200]Smallerbreastswerewidelyassociatedwithyouthfulness.[201]Cross-culturally,anotherstudyfound"highvariability"regardingtheidealbreastsize.[200]SomeresearchersintheUnitedKingdomhavespeculatedthatapreferenceforlargerbreastsmayhavedevelopedinWesternsocietiesbecausewomenwithlargerbreaststendtohavehigherlevelsofthehormonesestradiolandprogesterone,whichbothpromotefertility.[202] AstudybyGroyeckaetal.,inwhichtheyexaminedPolesandYaliofNewGuinea,demonstratedthatmen'sjudgementsofbreastappearanceisaffectedbytheoccurrenceofbreastptosis(i.e.,sagginess,droopiness).[203]Greaterbreastptosis(moresaggingbreasts)isperceivedaslessattractiveandattributedtoawomanofolderage.Thesefindingsarecoherentwithpreviousresearchthatlinkbreastattractivenesswithfemaleyouthfulness.Unlikebreastsize,breastptosisseemstobeauniversalmarkeroffemalebreastattractiveness. Astudyshowedthatmenprefersymmetricalbreasts.[160][204]Breastsymmetrymaybeparticularlysensitivetodevelopmentaldisturbancesandthesymmetrydifferencesforbreastsarelargecomparedtootherbodyparts.Womenwhohavemoresymmetricalbreaststendtohavemorechildren.[205] Historicalliteratureoftenincludesspecificfeaturesofindividualsoragenderthatareconsidereddesirable.Thesehaveoftenbecomeamatterofconvention,andshouldbeinterpretedwithcaution.InArabiansocietyintheMiddleAges,acomponentofthefemalebeautyidealwasforwomentohavesmallbreasts.[170]InPersianliterature,beautifulwomenaresaidtohavebreastslikepomegranatesorlemons.[169]IntheChinesetextJeweledChamberSecrets(Chinese:玉房秘訣)fromtheSixDynastiesperiod,theidealwomanwasdescribedashavingfirmbreasts.[172]InSanskritliterature,beautifulwomenareoftensaidtohavebreastssolargethattheycausethewomentobendalittlebitfromtheirweight.[206]InMiddleEnglishliterature,beautifulwomenshouldhavesmallbreaststhatareroundlikeanappleorapear.[111] Buttocks[edit] Mainarticle:Culturalhistoryofthebuttocks ThisdrawingisaremakeofadrawingusedinanexperimenttoresearchwhatSouthAfrican,BritishwhiteandBritishAfricanmenconsideredtobethemostattractivesizeofposteriorandbreastsforwhiteandblackwomen.Thisimageonlyshowsthetwoextremevariationsofsizeonblackfemalefiguresusedintheexperiment.ThefigureatleftreceivedthehighestaverageattractivenessratingfromSouthAfricanmenwhileafigurewithanintermediatesizereceivedthehighestratingsfrombothwhiteandblackBritishmen.Thefigureatrightdidnotreceivethehighestaverageattractivenessratingfromanygroup.[207] BiologicalanthropologistHelenE.FisheroftheCenterforHumanEvolutionStudiesintheDepartmentofAnthropologyofRutgersUniversitysaidthat,"perhaps,thefleshy,roundedbuttocks...attractedmalesduringrear-entryintercourse."[208]Inarecentstudy,using3Dmodelsandeye-trackingtechnologyFisher'sclaimwastestedandwasshownthattheslightthrustingoutofawoman'sbackinfluencehowattractiveothersperceivehertobeandcapturesthegazeofbothmenandwomen.[209][210]BobbiS.Lowetal.oftheSchoolofNaturalResourcesandEnvironmentattheUniversityofMichigan,saidthefemale"buttocksevolvedinthecontextoffemalescompetingfortheattentionandparentalcommitmentofpowerfulresource-controllingmales"asan"honestdisplayoffatreserves"thatcouldnotbeconfusedwithanothertypeoftissue,[211]althoughT.M.Caro,professorintheCenterforPopulationBiologyandtheDepartmentofWildlife,Fish,andConservationBiology,atUniversityofCalifornia,Davis,rejectedthatasbeinganecessaryconclusion,statingthatfemalefattydepositsonthehipsimprove"individualfitnessofthefemale",regardlessofsexualselection.[211] Ina1995study,blackmenweremorelikelythanwhitementousethewords"big"or"large"todescribetheirconceptionofanattractivewoman'sposterior.[212] Bodymass[edit] BodyMassIndex(BMI)isanimportantdeterminanttotheperceptionofbeauty.[213]EventhoughtheWesternidealisforathinwoman,someculturespreferplumperwomen,[176][214]whichhasbeenarguedtosupportthatattractionforaparticularBMImerelyisaculturalartifact.[214]Theattractionforaproportionatebodyalsoinfluencesanappealforerectposture.[215]Onecross-culturalsurveycomparingbody-masspreferencesamong300ofthemostthoroughlystudiedculturesintheworldshowedthat81%ofculturespreferredafemalebodysizethatinEnglishwouldbedescribedas"plump".[216] Availabilityoffoodinfluenceswhichfemalebodysizeisattractivewhichmayhaveevolutionaryreasons.Societieswithfoodscarcitiespreferlargerfemalebodysizethansocietiesthathaveplentyoffood.InWesternsocietymaleswhoarehungrypreferalargerfemalebodysizethantheydowhennothungry.[217] BMIhasbeencriticisedforconflatingfatandmuscle,andmorerecentstudieshaveconcentratedonbodycomposition.AmongAustralianuniversitystudents,themostattractivebodycompositionforwomen(10.31 kgfat,42.45 kgmuscle)wasfoundtobelowerinfatthanboththemosthealthyappearingcomposition,andbelowthehealthyrange.[146] IntheUnitedStates,womenoverestimatemen'spreferencesforthinnessinamate.Inonestudy,Americanwomenwereaskedtochoosewhattheiridealbuildwasandwhattheythoughtthebuildmostattractivetomenwas.Womenchoseslimmerthanaveragefiguresforbothchoices.WhenAmericanmenwereindependentlyaskedtochoosethefemalebuildmostattractivetothem,themenchosefiguresofaveragebuild.Thisindicatesthatwomenmaybemisledastohowthinmenpreferwomentobe.[214]Somespeculatethatthinnessasabeautystandardisonewayinwhichwomenjudgeeachother[182][better source needed]andthatthinnessisviewedasprestigiousforwithin-genderevaluationsofotherwomen.[182][better source needed]Areportersurmisedthatthinnessisprizedamongwomenasa"signofindependence,strengthandachievement."[182][better source needed]Someimplicatedthefashionindustryforthepromulgationofthenotionofthinnessasattractive.[218] EastAsianshavehistoricallypreferredwomenwhosebodieshadsmallfeatures.Forexample,duringtheSpringandAutumnperiodofChinesehistory,womeninChineseharemswantedtohaveathinbodyinordertobeattractivefortheChineseemperor.Later,duringtheTangDynasty,alessthinbodytypewasseenasmostattractiveforChinesewomen.[219]InArabiansocietyintheMiddleAges,acomponentofthefemalebeautyidealwasforwomentobeslenderlikea"cane"ora"twig".[170]IntheChinesetextJeweledChamberSecrets(Chinese:玉房秘訣)fromtheSixDynastiesperiod,theidealwomanwasdescribedasnotbeing"large-boned".[172] IntheVictorianera,womenwhoadheredtoVictorianidealswereexpectedtolimittheirfoodconsumptiontoattaintheidealslimfigure.[220]InMiddleEnglishliterature,"slender"womenareconsideredbeautiful.[111] Accordingtoresearchonfemales,womenconsiderafullbodywithgooddistributiontobehighlyimportanttobeconsideredattractivebymen[221] Waist–hipratio[edit] Mainarticle:Waist–hipratio Measurementofwaisthipratio:Inaleanperson(left),thewaistcanbemeasuredatitsnarrowestpoint,whileforapersonwithconvexwaist(right),itmaybemeasuredataboutoneinch[222]abovethenavel.Thehipismeasuredatitswidestportionofthebuttocksatleft,andatthegreatertrochantersatright. AWHRof0.7forwomenhasbeenshowntocorrelatestronglywithgeneralhealthandfertility.Womenwithinthe0.7rangehaveoptimallevelsofestrogenandarelesssusceptibletomajordiseasessuchasdiabetes,heartdisease,andovariancancers.[223]WomenwithhighWHR(0.80orhigher)havesignificantlylowerpregnancyratesthanwomenwithlowerWHRs(0.70–0.79),independentoftheirBMIs.[224][225]Femalewaist-to-hipratio(WHR)hasbeenproposedbyevolutionarypsychologiststobeanimportantcomponentofhumanmalematechoice,becausethistraitisthoughttoprovideareliablecuetoawoman'sreproductivevalue.[226] Bothmenandwomenjudgewomenwithsmallerwaist-to-hipratiosmoreattractive.[227]Ethnicgroupsvarywithregardtotheiridealwaist-to-hipratioforwomen,[228]rangingfrom0.6inChina,[229]to0.8or0.9inpartsofSouthAmericaandAfrica,[230][231][91]anddivergentpreferencesbasedonethnicity,ratherthannationality,havealsobeennoted.[232][233]AstudyfoundtheMachiguengapeople,anisolatedindigenousSouthAmericanethnicgroup,preferwomenwithhighWHR(0.9).[234]Thepreferenceforheavierwomen,hasbeeninterpretedtobelongtosocietieswherethereisnoriskofobesity.[235] InChinese,thephrase"willowwaist"(Chinese:柳腰)isusedtodenoteabeautifulwomanbydescribingherwaistasbeingslenderlikeawillowbranch.[172] IntheVictorianera,asmallwaistwasconsideredthemaintraitofabeautifulwoman.[220]Theterm"waspwaist"describesanextremefashionsilhouette,producedbyastyleofcorsetandgirdle. Feetsize[edit] Accordingtosomestudies,mostmenpreferwomenwithsmallfeet,[236][237]suchasinancientChinawherefootbindingwaspracticed.[238] InJewishRabbinicliterature,therabbisconsideredsmallfeettobetheidealtypeoffeetforwomen.[171] Hair[edit] Menhavebeenfoundtopreferlong-hairedwomen.[62][239][240]Anevolutionarypsychologyexplanationforthisisthatmalnutritionanddeficienciesinmineralsandvitaminscauseslossofhairorhairchanges.Hairthereforeindicateshealthandnutritionduringthelast2–3years.Lustroushairisalsooftenacross-culturalpreference.[201] AcomponentofthefemalebeautyidealinPersianliteratureisforwomentohaveblackhair,[169]whichwasalsopreferredinArabiansocietyintheMiddleAges.[170]InMiddleEnglishliterature,curlyhairisanecessarycomponentofabeautifulwoman.[111] Movementpatterns[edit] Thewayanindividualmovescanindicatehealthandevenageandinfluenceattractiveness.[201]Astudyreflectingtheviewsof700individualsandthatinvolvedanimatedrepresentationsofpeoplewalking,foundthatthephysicalattractivenessofwomenincreasedbyabout50percentwhentheywalkedwithahipsway.Similarly,theperceivedattractivenessofmalesdoubledwhentheymovedwithaswaggerintheirshoulders.[241] Fertility-drivenattractiveness[edit] Therearesomesubtlechangesinwomen'sperceivedattractivenessacrossthemenstrualcycle.Duringtheirmostfertilephase,wecanobservesomechangesinwomen'sbehaviorandphysiology.AstudyconductedbyG.Miller(2007)examinedtheamountoftipearningsbylapdancersacrossthemenstrualcycle.HefoundthatdancersreceivednearlyUS$15morewhentheywerenearovulationthanduringtherestofthemonth.Thissuggeststhatwomeneitheraremoreattractiveduringovulationphase,ortheyexperienceasignificantchangeintheirbehavior.[242]Someotherstudieshavefoundthattherearesubtledifferencesinwomen'sfaceswhenintheirfertilephase.BobstandLobmaier(2012)created20prototypedphotographs,someofafemaleduringovulationandsomeduringthelutealphase.Menwereaskedtochoosethemoreattractive,themorecaringandthemoreflirtatiousfaces.Theyfoundasignificantpreferenceforthefollicularphase(ovulation).Thissuggeststhatsubtleshapedifferencesinfacesoccurringduringthefemale'sovulationphasearesufficienttoattractmenmore.[243]Thisideaissupportedbyanotherstudy,whereasimilarexperimentwasdone.Menandwomenhadtojudgephotographsofwomen'sfacestakenduringtheirfertilephase.Theywereallratedmoreattractivethanduringnon-fertilephase.Theyaresomesubtlevisiblecuestoovulationinwomen'sfaces,andtheyareperceivedasmoreattractive,leadingtotheideathatitcouldbeanadaptivemechanismtoraiseafemale'smatevalueatthatspecifictime(whenprobabilityofconceptionisatitshighest).[242] Women'sattractiveness,asperceivedbymenandwomen,slightlydiffersacrosshermenstrualcycle,beingatpeakwhensheisinherovulationphase.Jonesetal.(2008),focusedonwomen'spreferencesformasculinity,apparenthealthandself-resemblanceandfoundthatitvariesacrossthecycle.Theyexplainedthatthefunctionoftheeffectsofmenstrualcyclephaseonpreferencesforapparenthealthandself-resemblanceinfacesistoincreasethelikelihoodofpregnancy.[244] Similarly,femalepreferthescentofsymmetricalmenandmasculinefacesduringfertilephasesaswellasstereotypicalmaledisplayssuchassocialpresence,anddirectintrasexualcompetitiveness.[245] Duringthefollicularphase(fertile),femalesprefermoremale'straits(testosteronedependenttraitssuchasfaceshape)thanwheninnon-fertilephase.Thosefindingshavebeenfoundinthevoice,showingthatfemales'preferencesformoremasculinevoicesoverfemininevoicesincreasethefertilephaseofthemenstrualcycle.[246] Butnotonlyfemales'preferencesvaryacrosscycle,theirbehavioursaswell.Effectively,menresponddifferentlytofemaleswhentheyareonovulatorycycle,[242]becausefemalesactdifferently.Womenintheovulatoryphaseareflirtierwithmalesshowinggeneticfitnessmarkersthaninlowfertilephase.[247]Ithasbeenshowninsomestudiesthatwomenhighinestrogenaregenerallyperceivedtobemoreattractivethanwomenwithlowlevelsofestrogen,basedonwomennotwearingmake-up.Highestrogenlevelwomenmayalsobeviewedashealthierortohaveamorefeminineface.[248] Similarly,astudyinvestigatedthecapacityofwomentoselecthighqualitymalesbasedontheirfacialattractiveness.Theyfoundthatfacialattractivenesscorrelatedwithsemenquality(good,normal,orbaddependingonspermmorphologyandmotility).Themoreattractiveaman'sfaceis,linkedtohisspermbeingofbetterquality.[249] Sexualornamentation[edit] Sexualornamentsareseeninmanyorganisms;inhumans,femaleshavesexualornamentationintheformofbreastsandbuttocks.Thephysicalattractiontosexualornamentsisassociatedwithgynoidfat,asopposedtoandroidfat,whichisconsideredunattractive.[250]Inhumanfemales,proximatecausesofthedevelopmentofsexualornamentsareassociatedwiththepredominanceofestrogeninpuberty.Theactivationofestrogenreceptorsaroundthefemaleskeletaltissuecausesgynoidfattobedepositedinthebreasts,buttocks,hipsandthighs,producinganoveralltypicalfemalebodyshape.[251]Specifically,femalebreastsareconsideredmoreattractivewhensymmetrical,ratherthanasymmetrical,[252]asthisisthoughttoreflectgooddevelopmentalstability.[253] Sexualornamentsareconsideredattractivefeaturesastheyarethoughttoindicatehighmatevalue,fertility,[254]andtheabilitytoprovidegoodcaretooffspring.Theyaresexuallyselectedtraitspresentforthepurposeofhonestsignallingandcapturingthevisualattentionoftheoppositesex,mostcommonlyassociatedwithfemalescapturingthevisualattentionofmales.Ithasbeenproposedthattheseornamentshaveevolvedinordertoadvertisepersonalqualityandreproductivevalue.[255]Honestsignallingwithsexualornamentsisassociatedwithultimatecausationoftheseevolvedtraits.Theevolutionoftheseornamentsisalsoassociatedwithfemale-femalecompetitioninordertogainmaterialbenefitsprovidedbyresourcefulandhighstatusmales.[256]Inhumans,oncethesesexualornamentsdevelop,theyarepermanent.Itisthoughtthatthisisassociatedwiththelong-termpairbondinghumansengagein;humanfemalesengageinextendedsexualactivityoutsideoftheirfertileperiod.[257]Thisrelatestoanotherultimatecauseofsexualornamentswithfunctioninobtainingnon-geneticmaterialbenefitsfrommales.Inotheranimalspecies,evenotherprimatespecies,theseadvertisementsofreproductivevaluearenotpermanent.Usually,itisthepointatwhichthefemaleisathermostfertile,shedisplayssexualswellings.[258] Adolescenceistheperiodoftimewherebyhumansexperiencepuberty,andexperienceanatomicalchangestotheirbodiesthroughtheincreaseofsexhormonesreleasedinthebody.Adolescentexaggerationistheperiodoftimeatwhichsexualornamentsaremaximised,andpeakgynoidfatcontentisreached.[256]Inhumanfemales,themeanageforthisisapproximately16years.Femalebreastsdevelopatthisstagenotonlytoprepareforreproduction,butalsoduetocompetitionwithotherfemalesindisplayingtheirreproductivevalueandqualitytomales.[256] Neuralcorrelatesofperceivingattractiveness[edit] Moststudiesofthebrainactivationsassociatedwiththeperceptionofattractivenessshowphotographsoffacestotheirparticipantsandletthemoracomparablegroupofpeopleratetheattractivenessofthesefaces.Suchstudiesconsistentlyfindthatactivityincertainpartsoftheorbitofrontalcortexincreaseswithincreasingattractivenessoffaces.[259][260][256][261][262]Thisneuralresponsehasbeeninterpretedasareactionontherewardingnatureofattractiveness,assimilarincreasesinactivationinthemedialorbitofrontalcortexcanbeseeninresponsetosmilingfaces[263]andtostatementsofmorallygoodactions.[256][262]Whilemostofthesestudieshavenotassessedparticipantsofbothgendersorhomosexualindividuals,evidencefromonestudyincludingmaleandfemalehetero-andhomosexualindividualsindicatethatsomeoftheaforementionedincreasesinbrainactivityarerestrictedtoimagesoffacesofthegenderparticipantsfeelsexuallyattractedto.[264] Withregardtobrainactivationrelatedtotheperceptionofattractivebodies,onestudywithheterosexualparticipantssuggeststhatactivityinthenucleusaccumbensandtheanteriorcingulatecortexincreaseswithincreasingattractiveness.Thesamestudyfindsthatforfacesandbodiesalike,themedialpartoftheorbitofrontalcortexrespondswithgreateractivitytobothveryattractiveandveryunattractivepictures.[265] Forbothmenandwomen,thereappeartobeuniversalcriteriaofattractivenessbothwithinandacrossculturesandethnicgroups.[17][266]Whenconsideringlong-termrelationships,somestudieshavefoundthatmenplaceahigheremphasisonphysicalattractivenessinapartnerthanwomendo.[267][268][269][270][271]Ontheotherhand,somestudieshavefoundfewdifferencesbetweenmenandwomenintermsoftheweighttheyplaceonphysicalcharacteristicswhentheyarechoosingpartnersforshort-termrelationships,[272][273][274][275]inparticularwithregardtotheirimplicit,asopposedtoexplicitlyarticulated,preferences.[276]Otherrecentstudiescontinuetofindsexdifferencesforlong-termrelationships.[277][278][279][274]Whilestillvaluingphysicalattractiveness,womentendtoprioritizeaman'sstatusoverhisphysicalattractiveness,whilemenprioritizephysicalattractivenessoverstatus.[280]Thereisalsoonestudysuggestingthatonlymen,notwomen,placegreaterpriorityonbodilycomparedtofacialattractivenesswhenlookingforashort-termascomparedtoalong-termpartner.[281] Bangladeshibrideexemplifyingweddingdaybeauty Someevolutionarypsychologists,includingDavidBuss,havearguedthatthislong-termrelationshipdifferencemaybeaconsequenceofancestralhumanswhoselectedpartnersbasedonsecondarysexualcharacteristics,aswellasgeneralindicatorsoffitnesswhichallowedforgreaterreproductivesuccessasaresultofhigherfertilityinthosepartners,[282]althoughamale'sabilitytoprovideresourcesforoffspringwaslikelysignaledlessbyphysicalfeatures.[269]Itisarguedthatthemostprominentindicatoroffertilityinwomenisyouth,[283][284][285]whilethetraitsinamanwhichenhancereproductivesuccessareproxiesforhisabilitytoaccrueresourcesandprotect.[285] Studieshaveshownthatwomenpaygreaterattentiontophysicaltraitsthantheydodirectlytoearningcapabilityorpotentialtocommit,[286]includingmuscularity,fitnessandmasculinityoffeatures;thelatterpreferencewasobservedtovaryduringawoman'speriod,withwomenpreferringmoremasculinefeaturesduringthelate-follicular(fertile)phaseofthemenstrualcycle.[246][287]Additionally,womenprocessphysicalattractivenessdifferently,payingattentiontobothindividualfeaturesandtheaestheticeffectofthewholeface.[288]A2003studyintheareaconcludedthatheterosexualwomenareaboutequallyarousedwhenviewingmenorwomen.Heterosexualmenwereonlyarousedbywomen.Thisstudyverifiedarousalinthetestsubjectsbyconnectingthemtobrainimagingdevices.[289][290][291][292]Notably,thesamestudyreportedarousalforwomenuponviewinganimalsmating. BonnieAdrian'sbook,FramingtheBride,discussestheemphasisTaiwanesebridesplaceonphysicalattractivenessfortheirweddingphotographs.GlobalizationandwesternidealsofbeautyhavespreadandhavebecomemoreprevalentinAsiansocietieswherebridesgothroughhoursofhairandmakeupto"transformeverydaywomenwiththeirindividualcharacteristicsintogenericlook-alikebeautiesinthreehours'time."Thesebridesgothroughhoursofmakeuptotransformthemselvesintosociallyconstructedbeauty.[293] Accordingtostrategicpluralismtheory,menmayhavecorrespondinglyevolvedtopursuereproductivestrategiesthatarecontingentontheirownphysicalattractiveness.Morephysicallyattractivemenaccruereproductivebenefitsfromspendingmoretimeseekingmultiplematingpartnersandrelativelylesstimeinvestinginoffspring.Incontrast,thereproductiveeffortofphysicallylessattractivemen,whothereforewillnothavethesamematingopportunities,isbetterallocatedeithertoinvestingheavilyinaccruingresources,orinvestingintheirmatesandoffspringandspendingrelativelylesstimeseekingadditionalmates.[294] Facialsimilarityandracialpreferences[edit] Seealso:Sexualracism Studieshavesuggestedthatpeoplearegenerallyattractedtopeoplewholooklikethem,[295]andtheygenerallyevaluatefacesthatexhibitfeaturesoftheirownethnicorracialgroupasbeingmoreattractive.[240]Bothmenandwomenusechildren's"facialresemblance"tothemselvesin"attractivenessjudgments,"withagreaterpercentageofwomeninonestudy(37%n=30)findinghypotheticalchildrenwhosefaceswere"self-morphs"ofthemselvesasmostattractivewhencomparedtomen(30%n=23).[296] Themoresimilarajudgedpersonistowardthejudgingperson,themoretheformerisliked.However,thiseffectcanbereversed.Thismightdependonhowattractivenessisconceptualized:similarmembers—comparedtodissimilarones—oftheoppositesexarejudgedasmorelikableinaprosocialsense.Findingsaremoreambiguouswhenlookingforthedesiring,pleasurerelatedcomponentofattractiveness.[297]Thismightbeinfluencedbythemeasureoneuses(subjectiveratingscandifferfromthewayoneactuallyreacts)andbysituationalfactors:whilemenusuallypreferwomenwhosefaceresemblestheirown,thiseffectcanreverseunderstress,whendissimilarfemalesarepreferred.[298] AstudybyR.E.Hallin2008,whichexamineddeterminationsofphysicalattractivenessbyhavingsubjectslookatthefacesofwomen,foundthatracewassometimesafactorintheseevaluations.[299]In2011,twostudiesfoundevidencethattheethnicityofafaceinfluencedhowattractiveitwasjudgedtobe.[300][301]A2014studybyTsunokai,McGrathandKavanaghbasedondatafromadatingwebsite,theauthorscitedraceasafactorindatingpreferencesbyAsian-Americanmen,bothhomosexualandheterosexual.[302]A2013studyfoundonlyweaksupportfortheviewthatpeoplepreferthefacesofthoseraciallysimilartothemselves.[303]Onestudysuggestsimbalanceininterracialmarriage(whitemale-Asianfemalemarriagesaremorethantwiceascommonasthereverse)maybeattributedtothefactthatAsianpeopleareperceivedasmorefemininethanwhitepeople,[304]andthusthatAsianwomenareperceivedasmoreattractivethanwhitewomen,andAsianmenaslessattractivethanwhitemen.[305]Otherstudiessuggeststhatinter-ethnicandintra-ethnicdifferencesinperceivedfacialmasculinityhasnoimpactonattractiveness,andthatskincolorplaysamoreimportantroleinattractivenessassessmentsofmalefaceswithingroupsbutnotbetweengroupsasahealthsignal.[306] Groupattractivenesseffect[edit] Thegroupattractivenesseffectiswhereagroup'soverallattractivenessratingishigherthanthemeanofeachindividuals'attractivenessrating.Thisoccursbecausepeopleselectivelyattendtothemostattractivegroupmembers[307]andthustheygetthemostattention.Menselectivelyattendtoattractivepeoplemorethanwomen,ithasbeensuggestedthatthiscouldbebecausemenarelessinvestedintheiroffspring,sotheyarelesschoosywhenitcomestosexualpartners,andthereforetheyaremoreeasilyattracted.Asaresultofselectiveattention,peopleendupgivingagroupratingwhichisbiasedastheratingfocusesmainlyontheattractivemembersandignoresthelessattractivemembers.Sotheoverallattractivenessratingisskewedtowardsmoreattractive.Thegroupattractivenesseffectwasinvestigatedinastudywhichgotparticipantstoratethephysicalattractivenessofagroupoffemalesasawhole,individuallyinagroup,andindividuallyontheirown.[308]Participantswereaskedtogivearatingof1–7,with1beingveryunattractiveand7beingveryattractive.Thegroupattractivenesseffecthasbeenreplicatedwithmalesasthemaingroupandalsowithagroupofbothmalesandfemales.ThiseffectmaynotbedemonstratedacrossallculturesbecausethesampleonlycontainedDutchuniversitystudents. Socialeffects[edit] Perceptionsofphysicalattractivenesscontributetogeneralizedassumptionsbasedonthoseattractions.Individualsassumethatwhensomeoneisbeautiful,thentheyhavemanyotherpositiveattributesthatmaketheattractivepersonmorelikeable.[16]Thisisreferredtoasthehaloeffect,alsoknownasthe'beautiful-is-good'effect.[16]Acrosscultures,whatisbeautifulisassumedtobegood;attractivepeopleareassumedtobemoreextroverted,popular,andhappy.Thiscouldleadtoaself-fulfillingprophecy,as,fromayoungage,attractivepeoplereceivemoreattentionthathelpsthemdevelopthesecharacteristics.[309][310]Inonestudy,beautifulpeoplewerefoundtobegenerallyhappierthanlessbeautifulorplainpeople,perhapsbecausetheseoutgoingpersonalitytraitsarelinkedtohappiness,orperhapsbecausebeautyledtoincreasedeconomicbenefitswhichpartiallyexplainedtheincreasedhappiness.[167]Inanotherstudytestingfirstimpressionsin56femaleand17maleparticipantsatUniversityofBritishColumbia,personalitytraitsofphysicallyattractivepeoplewereidentifiedmorepositivelyandmoreaccuratelythanthosewhowerelessphysicallyattractive.Itwasexplainedthatpeoplepaycloserattentiontothosetheyfindphysicallybeautifulorattractive,andthusperceivingattractiveindividualswithgreaterdistinctiveaccuracy.Thestudybelievesthisaccuracytobesubjectivetotheeyeofthebeholder.[311]RecentresultsfromtheWisconsinLongitudinalStudyconfirmedthepositivelinkbetweenpsychologicalwell-beingandattractiveness(higherfacialattractiveness,lowerBMI)andalsofoundthecomplementarynegativeassociationwithdistress/depression.Eventhoughconnectionsandconfoundswithothervariablescouldnotbeexcluded,theeffectsofattractivenessinthisstudywerethesamesizeastheonesforotherdemographicvariables.[312] Indevelopedwesternsocieties,womentendtobejudgedfortheirphysicalappearanceovertheirotherqualitiesandthepressuretoengageinbeautyworkismuchhigherforwomenthanmen.Beautyworkisdefinedasvariousbeauty"practicesindividualsperformonthemselvesorotherstoelicitcertainbenefitsfromaspecificsocialhierarchy."[313]Being"beautiful"hasindividual,socialandinstitutionalrewards.[313]Althoughmarketershavestartedtotargetthe"metro-sexual"maleandproducehygieneandbeautyproductsgearedtowardsmen,theexpectationsplacedonthemislessthanwomen[314]Thetimeandmoneyrequiredforamantoachievethesamewell-groomedappearanceismuchlower.Eveninareasthatmenalsofacepressuretoperformbeautywork,suchahaircuts/styling,thepricesdiscrepancyforproductsandservicesareskewed.Thisphenomenoniscalledthe"pinktax."[315][316] However,attractivenessvariesbysociety;inancientChinafootbindingwaspracticedbyconfiningyounggirls'feetintightlyboundshoestopreventthefeetfromgrowingtonormalsizecausingthewomentohaveanattractive"lotusgait".InEngland,womenusedtowearcorsetsthatseverelyconstrictedtheirbreathinginordertoachieveavisualeffectofanexaggeratedlylowwaist-to-hipratio. Peoplemakejudgmentsofphysicalattractivenessbasedonwhattheysee,butalsoonwhattheyknowabouttheperson.Specifically,perceptionsofbeautyaremalleablesuchthatinformationabouttheperson'spersonalitytraitscaninfluenceone'sassessmentofanotherperson'sphysicalbeauty.A2007studyhadparticipantsfirstratepicturesforattractiveness.Afterdoingdistractingmathproblems,participantssawthepicturesagain,butwithinformationabouttheperson'spersonality.Whenparticipantslearnedthatapersonhadpositivepersonalitycharacteristics(e.g.,smart,funny,kind),thatpersonwasseenasmorephysicallyattractive.[317]Conversely,apersonwithnegativepersonalitycharacteristics(e.g.,materialistic,rude,untrustworthy)wasseenaslessphysicallyattractive.Thiswastrueforbothfemalesandmales. Physicalattractivenesscanhavevarioussocialeffects.Forinstance,humanstendtoself-organizeintocoupleswherebothpartieshavelooselysimilarattractivenesslevelsasjudgedbythirdparties.[318][319][320]AsurveyconductedbyLondonGuildhallUniversityof11,000peopleshowedthatthosewhosubjectivelydescribethemselvesasphysicallyattractiveearnmoreincomethanotherswhowoulddescribethemselvesaslessattractive.[24]Peoplewhodescribedthemselvesaslessattractiveearned,onaverage,13%lessthanthosewhodescribedthemselvesasmoreattractive,whilethepenaltyforbeingoverweightwasaround5%.Accordingtofurtherresearchdoneonthecorrelationbetweenlooksandearningsinmen,thepunishmentforunattractivenessisgreaterthanthebenefitsofbeingattractive.However,inwomenthepunishmentisfoundtobeequaltothebenefits.[321]Anotherstudysuggeststhatmorephysicallyattractivepeoplearesignificantlymorelikelyonaveragetoearnconsiderablyhigherwages.Differencesinincomeduetoattractivenesswasmuchmorepronouncedformenratherthanwomen,andheldtrueforallrangesofincome.[322]IntheUStheearningsdisparitiesalongtheattractivenesscontinuum(netofcontrols)aresimilarorgreaterthantheblack-whitedisparity.[323]Astudyfrom2020foundthatsocialscientistswhoarejudgedasbeingmoreattractivereceivehigherpublicspeakingfeesthanlessattractivesocialscientists,whereasfornaturalscientists,relativeunattractivenessisacomparativeadvantageintermsofpublicspeakingfees.[324] Itisimportanttonotethatotherfactorssuchasself-confidencemayexplainorinfluencethesefindingsastheyarebasedonself-reportedattractivenessasopposedtoanysortofobjectivecriteria;however,asone'sself-confidenceandself-esteemarelargelylearnedfromhowoneisregardedbyhis/herpeerswhilematuring,eventheseconsiderationswouldsuggestasignificantroleforphysicalappearance.Onewriterspeculatedthat"thedistresscreatedinwomenbythespreadofunattainableidealsoffemalebeauty"mightpossiblybelinkedtoincreasingincidenceofdepression.[325] Manyhaveassertedthatcertainadvantagestendtocometothosewhoareperceivedasbeingmoreattractive,includingtheabilitytogetbetterjobsandpromotions;receivingbettertreatmentfromauthoritiesandthelegalsystem;havingmorechoicesinromanticorplatonicpartnersand,therefore,morepowerinrelationships;andmarryingintofamilieswithmoremoney.[28][167][309][310][326]Thosewhoareattractivearetreatedandjudgedmorepositivelythanthosewhoareconsideredunattractive,evenbythosewhoknowthem.Also,attractiveindividualsbehavemorepositivelythanthosewhoareunattractive.[327]Onestudyfoundthatteacherstendtoexpectthatchildrenwhoareattractivearemoreintelligent,andaremorelikelytoprogressfurtherinschool.Theyalsoconsiderthesestudentstobemorepopular.[328]Voterschoosepoliticalcandidateswhoaremoreattractiveoverthosewhoarelessattractive.[329]Menandwomenusephysicalattractivenessasameasureofhow"good"anotherpersonis.[330]In1946,SolomanAschcoinedtheImplicitPersonalityTheory,meaningthatthepresenceofonetraittendstoimplytheexistenceofothertraits.Thisisalsoknownasthehaloeffect.Researchsuggeststhatthosewhoarephysicallyattractivearethoughttohavemoresociallydesirablepersonalitiesandleadbetterlivesingeneral.[11]Thisisalsoknownasthe"what-is-beautiful-is-goodeffect"orphysicalattractivenessstereotype.Discriminationagainstorprejudicetowardsothersbasedontheirappearanceissometimesreferredtoaslookism(prejudiceordiscriminationbasedonphysicalappearanceandespeciallyphysicalappearancebelievedtofallshortofsocietalnotionsofbeauty).[331] Someresearchersconcludethatlittledifferenceexistsbetweenmenandwomenintermsofsexualbehavior.[268][332]Otherresearchersdisagree.[333]Symmetricalmenandwomenhaveatendencytobegintohavesexualintercourseatanearlierage,tohavemoresexualpartners,toengageinawidervarietyofsexualactivities,andtohavemoreone-nightstands.Theyarealsopronetoinfidelityandaremorelikelytohaveopenrelationships.[44]Additionally,theyhavethemostreproductivesuccess.Therefore,theirphysicalcharacteristicsaremostlikelytobeinheritedbyfuturegenerations.[334][335][336][337] Concernforimprovingphysicalattractivenesshasledmanypersonstoconsideralternativessuchascosmeticsurgery.Ithasledscientistsworkingwithrelateddisciplinessuchascomputerimagingandmathematicstoconductresearchtosuggestwaystosurgicallyalterthedistancesbetweenfacialfeaturesinordertomakeafaceconformmorecloselytothe"agreed-uponstandardsofattractiveness"ofanidealfacebyusingalgorithmstosuggestanalternativewhichstillresemblesthecurrentface.[26]Oneresearchstudyfoundthatcosmeticsurgeryasawayto"boostearnings"was"notprofitableinamonetarysense."[167]Someresearchshowsthatphysicalattractivenesshasamarginaleffectonhappiness.[338] Misconceptions[edit] TheGoldenRatio[edit] TheGoldenRatio,alsoknownasTheGoldenProportion,wasconsideredtheperfectmeasurementofharmony,beautyandproportioninAncientGreece.Ideasfromthistheoryhaveheldupsuchasfacialsymmetry,facialproportion,sexualdimorphismandfacialaverageness.ResearchersMohammadKhursheedAlam,NorFaridMohdNoor,RehanaBasri,TanFoYewandTayHuiWenconductedastudywherethetestedif"TheIdealFace"playedanyfactorinfacialattractivenessinvariousethnicgroups.Atotalof286peopleaged18to25participatedinthissurvey,including100Malay(50male50female),100MalaysianChinese(50male50female),and86MalaysianIndian(36male50female).Thisstudyexcludedpatientsofmixedrace,thosewithcraniofacialdeformities,andthosewhohadpreviouslyreceivedorthodontictreatmentorhadfacesurgery.Beforethestudybegan,thesubjectsweregiventheopportunitytogivetheirinformedconsent.TheresultsoverallconcludedthattheGoldenRatiohadnosignificantassociationwithphysicalattractiveness.[339][340] Seealso[edit] Adornment –Accessoryorornamentworntoenhancethebeautyorstatusofthewearer Bodyproportions –Proportionsofthehumanbodyinart Artisticcanonsofbodyproportions –Criteriausedinformalfigurativeart Bodyshape –Generalshapeofahumanbody Malebodyshape –Malemusculo-skeletalcharacteristics Femalebodyshape –Cumulativeproductofthehumanfemaleskeletalstructureanddistributionofmuscleandfat Circassianbeauties Culturalviewsonthenavel –Normsandtaboosonnavelexposure Femininebeautyideal –Sociallyconstructednorms TheHonestBodyProject –Collectionofpicturesofrealwomen Humanphysicalappearance –Look,outwardphenotype Koinophilia –Hypothesisonnormativemateselection Matchinghypothesis –Mateselectionbysocialdesirability Ovulatoryshifthypothesis –Hypothesisthatfemalematingbehaviorchangesthroughoutthemenstrualcycle Sexualattraction –Attractiononthebasisofsexualdesire Sexualcapital –Socialvaluefromsexualattractiveness Sexualfetishism –Sexualarousalapersonreceivesfromanobjectorsituation Notes[edit] ^The"sittingbodyratio"(SBR)isalsoquoted,wherethetrunkismeasuredwithsubjectsittingonaflattable,andtheleg-lengthdeterminedbysubtractionfromstandingheight.Thisisalmostthesameasdistancefromtheperineumbutwithouttheneedtotouchanintimatearea. 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