Speech act - Wikipedia

Speech act theory hails from Wittgenstein's philosophical theories. Wittgenstein believed meaning derives from pragmatic tradition, demonstrating the ... Speechact FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Utterancethatservesaperformativefunction FortheU.S.law,seeSPEECHAct. Inthephilosophyoflanguageandlinguistics,speechactissomethingexpressedbyanindividualthatnotonlypresentsinformationbutperformsanactionaswell.[1]Forexample,thephrase"Iwouldlikethekimchi;couldyoupleasepassittome?"isconsideredaspeechactasitexpressesthespeaker'sdesiretoacquirethekimchi,aswellaspresentingarequestthatsomeonepassthekimchitothem.AccordingtoKentBach,"almostanyspeechactisreallytheperformanceofseveralactsatonce,distinguishedbydifferentaspectsofthespeaker'sintention:thereistheactofsayingsomething,whatonedoesinsayingit,suchasrequestingorpromising,andhowoneistryingtoaffectone'saudience".[2]ThecontemporaryuseofthetermgoesbacktoJ.L.Austin'sdevelopmentofperformativeutterancesandhistheoryoflocutionary,illocutionary,andperlocutionaryacts.Speechactsservetheirfunctiononcetheyaresaidorcommunicated.Thesearecommonlytakentoincludeactssuchasapologizing,promising,ordering,answering,requesting,complaining,warning,inviting,refusing,andcongratulating.[3] Contents 1History 2Overview 2.1Illocutionaryacts 2.2Perlocutionaryacts 2.3Performativespeechacts 2.4Indirectspeechacts 3Examples 4Inlanguagedevelopment 5Formalization 6Incomputerscience 6.1Conversationforaction 6.2Rules 6.3Inmultiagentuniverses 6.4Otherusesintechnology 7Inpoliticalscience 8Ineconomicsociology 9Seealso 10Notes 11Bibliography 12Furtherreading 13Externallinks History[edit] Formuchofthehistoryofthepositivistphilosophyoflanguage,languagewasviewedprimarilyasawayofmakingfactualassertions,andtheotherusesoflanguagetendedtobeignored,asAustinstatesatthebeginningofLecture1,"Itwasfortoolongtheassumptionofphilosophersthatthebusinessofa'statement'canonlybeto'describe'somestateofaffairs,orto'statesomefact',whichitmustdoeithertrulyorfalsely."[1]: 1 Wittgensteincameupwiththeideaof"don'taskforthemeaning,askfortheuse,"showinglanguageasanewvehicleforsocialactivity.[4]SpeechacttheoryhailsfromWittgenstein'sphilosophicaltheories.Wittgensteinbelievedmeaningderivesfrompragmatictradition,demonstratingtheimportanceofhowlanguageisusedtoaccomplishobjectiveswithinspecificsituations.Byfollowingrulestoaccomplishagoal,communicationbecomesasetoflanguagegames.Thus,utterancesdomorethanreflectameaning,theyarewordsdesignedtogetthingsdone.[5]TheworkofJ.L.Austin,particularlyhisHowtoDoThingswithWords,ledphilosopherstopaymoreattentiontothenon-declarativeusesoflanguage.Theterminologyheintroduced,especiallythenotions"locutionaryact","illocutionaryact",and"perlocutionaryact",occupiedanimportantroleinwhatwasthentobecomethe"studyofspeechacts".Allofthesethreeacts,butespeciallythe"illocutionaryact",arenowadayscommonlyclassifiedas"speechacts". Austinwasbynomeansthefirstonetodealwithwhatonecouldcall"speechacts"inawidersense.Theterm'socialact'andsomeofthetheoryofthistypeoflinguisticactionaretobefoundinthefifthofThomasReid'sEssaysontheActivePowersoftheHumanMind(1788,chapterVI,OftheNatureofaContract).[6] AdolfReinach(1883–1917)[7]andStanislavŠkrabec(1844–1918)[8]havebeenbothindependentlycreditedwithafairlycomprehensiveaccountofsocialactsasperformativeutterancesdatingto1913,longbeforeAustinandSearle. Theterm"SpeechAct"hadalsobeenalreadyusedbyKarlBühler.[9][10] Overview[edit] Mainarticles:locutionaryact,illocutionaryact,perlocutionaryact,andmetalocutionaryact Speechactscanbeanalysedonmultiplelevels: Alocutionaryact:theperformanceofanutterance:theactualutteranceanditsapparentmeaning,comprisinganyandallofitsverbal,social,andrhetoricalmeanings,allofwhichcorrespondtotheverbal,syntacticandsemanticaspectsofanymeaningfulutterance; anillocutionaryact:theactiveresultoftheimpliedrequestormeaningpresentedbythelocutionaryact.Forexample,ifthelocutionaryactinaninteractionisthequestion"Isthereanysalt?"theimpliedillocutionaryrequestis"Cansomeonepassthesalttome?"; andundercertainconditionsafurtherperlocutionaryact:theactualeffectofthelocutionaryandillocutionaryacts,suchaspersuading,convincing,scaring,enlightening,inspiring,orotherwisegettingsomeonetodoorrealizesomething,whetherintendedornot.[1] Additionally,ametalocutionaryactcategorizesspeechactsthatrefertotheformsandfunctionsofthediscourseitselfratherthancontinuingthesubstantivedevelopmentofthediscourse,ortotheconfigurationalfunctionsofprosodyandpunctuation.[11]: 88–93  Illocutionaryacts[edit] Theconceptofanillocutionaryactiscentraltotheconceptofaspeechact.Althoughthereareseveralscholarlyopinionsregardinghowtodefine'illocutionaryacts',therearesomekindsofactswhicharewidelyacceptedasillocutionary.Examplesofthesewidelyacceptedactsarecommandsorpromises. ThefirstoftheseopinionsistheoneheldbyJohnL.Austinwhocoinedtheterm"speechact"inhisbookHowtoDoThingswithWordspublishedposthumouslyin1962.[1]AccordingtoAustin'spreliminaryinformaldescription,theideaofan"illocutionaryact"canbecapturedbyemphasizingthat"bysayingsomething,wedosomething",aswhensomeoneissuesanordertosomeonetogobysaying"Go!",orwhenaministerjoinstwopeopleinmarriagesaying,"Inowpronounceyouhusbandandwife."(Austinwouldeventuallydefinethe"illocutionaryact"inamoreexactmanner.) JohnR.SearlegaveanalternativetoAustin'sexplanationoftheillocutionaryactsaying,a"speechact"isoftenmeanttorefertoexactlythesamethingasthetermillocutionaryact.Searle'sworkonspeechactsisunderstoodtofurtherrefineAustin'sconception.However,somephilosophershavepointedoutasignificantdifferencebetweenthetwoconceptions:whereasAustinemphasizedtheconventionalinterpretationofspeechacts,Searleemphasizedapsychologicalinterpretation(basedonbeliefs,intentions,etc.).[12] Perlocutionaryacts[edit] Whileillocutionaryactsrelatemoretothespeaker,perlocutionaryactsarecenteredaroundthelistener.Perlocutionaryactsalwayshavea'perlocutionaryeffect'whichistheeffectaspeechacthasonalistener.Thiscouldaffectthelistener'sthoughts,emotionsoreventheirphysicalactions.[13]Anexampleofthiscouldbeifsomeoneutteredthesentence"I'mhungry."Theperlocutionaryeffectonthelistenercouldbetheeffectofbeingpersuadedbytheutterance.Forexample,afterhearingtheutterance,thelistenercouldbepersuadedtomakeasandwichforthespeaker. Performativespeechacts[edit] AninterestingtypeofillocutionaryspeechactisthatperformedintheutteranceofwhatAustincallsperformativeutterances,typicalinstancesofwhichare"InominateJohntobePresident","Isentenceyoutotenyears'imprisonment",or"Ipromisetopayyouback."Inthesetypical,ratherexplicitcasesofperformativesentences,theactionthatthesentencedescribes(nominating,sentencing,promising)isperformedbytheutteranceofthesentenceitself.J.L.Austinclaimedthatperformativesentencescouldbe"happyorunhappy".Theywereonlyhappyifthespeakerdoestheactionsheorshetalksabout.Theywereunhappyifthisdidnothappen.Performativespeechactsalsouseexplicitverbsinsteadofimplicitones.Forexample,stating"Iintendtogo."doesconveyinformation,butitdoesnotreallymeanthatyouare[e.g.]promisingtogo;soitdoesnotcountas"performing"anaction("suchas"theactionofpromisingtogo).Therefore,it[theword"intend"]isanimplicitverb;i.e.,averbthatwouldnotbesuitableforuseinperformativespeechacts.[14] Indirectspeechacts[edit] Inthecourseofperformingspeechactspeoplecommunicatewitheachother.Thecontentofcommunicationmaybeidentical,oralmostidentical,withthecontentintendedtobecommunicated,aswhenastrangerasks,"Whatisyourname?"However,themeaningofthelinguisticmeansusedmayalsobedifferentfromthecontentintendedtobecommunicated.Onemay,inappropriatecircumstances,requestPetertodothedishesbyjustsaying,"Peter...!",oronecanpromisetodothedishesbysaying,"Me!"[citationneeded] Onecommonwayofperformingspeechactsistouseanexpressionwhichindicatesonespeechact,andindeedperformsthisact,butalsoperformsafurtherspeechact,whichisindirect.Onemay,forinstance,say,"Peter,canyouclosethewindow?",therebyaskingPeterwhetherhewillbeabletoclosethewindow,butalsorequestingthathedoesso.Sincetherequestisperformedindirectly,bymeansof(directly)performingaquestion,itcountsasanindirectspeechact.[citationneeded] Anevenmoreindirectwayofmakingsucharequestwouldbetosay,inPeter'spresenceintheroomwiththeopenwindow,"I'mcold."ThespeakerofthisrequestmustrelyuponPeter'sunderstandingofseveralitemsofinformationthatisnotexplicit:thatthewindowisopenandisthecauseofthembeingcold,thatbeingcoldisanuncomfortablesensationandtheywishittobetakencareof,andthatPetercarestorectifythissituationbyclosingthewindow.This,ofcourse,dependsmuchontherelationshipbetweentherequesterandPeter—hemightunderstandtherequestdifferentlyiftheywerehisbossatworkthaniftheywerehisgirlfriendorboyfriendathome.Themorepresumedinformationpertainingtotherequest,themoreindirectthespeechactmaybeconsideredtobe.[citationneeded] Indirectspeechactsarecommonlyusedtorejectproposalsandtomakerequests.Forexample,ifaspeakerasks,"Wouldyouliketomeetmeforcoffee?"andtheotherreplies,"Ihaveclass",thesecondspeakerhasusedanindirectspeechacttorejecttheproposal.Thisisindirectbecausetheliteralmeaningof"Ihaveclass"doesnotentailanysortofrejection.[citationneeded] Thisposesaproblemforlinguists,asitisconfusingtoseehowthepersonwhomadetheproposalcanunderstandthathisproposalwasrejected.In1975JohnSearlesuggestedthattheillocutionaryforceofindirectspeechactscanbederivedbymeansofaGriceanreasoningprocess;[15]however,theprocessheproposesdoesnotseemtoaccuratelysolvetheproblem[citationneeded]. Inotherwords,thismeansthatonedoesnotneedtosaythewordsapologize,pledge,orpraiseinordertoshowtheyaredoingtheaction.Alltheexamplesaboveshowhowtheactionsandindirectwordsmakesomethinghappenratherthancomingoutstraightforwardwithspecificwordsandsayingit.[citationneeded] Examples[edit] SpeechActsarecommonplaceineverydayinteractionsandareimportantforcommunication,aswellaspresentinmanydifferentcontexts.Examplesoftheseinclude: "You'refired!"expressesboththeemploymentstatusoftheindividualinquestion,aswellastheactionbywhichsaidperson'semploymentisended.[16] "Iherebyappointyouaschairman"expressesboththestatusoftheindividualaschairman,andtheactionwhichpromotestheindividualtothisposition.[17] "Weaskthatyouextinguishyourcigarettesatthistime,andbringyourtraytablesandseatbackstoanuprightposition."Thisstatementdescribestherequirementsofthecurrentlocation,suchasanairplane,whilealsoissuingthecommandtostopsmokingandtositupstraight. "Woulditbetoomuchtroubleformetoaskyoutohandmethatwrench?"functionstosimultaneouslyasktwoquestions.Thefirstistoaskthelisteneriftheyarecapableofpassingthewrench,whilethesecondisanactualrequest. "Well,wouldyoulistentothat?"actsasaquestion,requestingthatalistenerheedwhatisbeingsaidbythespeaker,butalsoasanexclamationofdisbelieforshock.[18] Inlanguagedevelopment[edit] In1975JohnDoreproposedthatchildren'sutteranceswererealizationsofoneofnineprimitivespeechacts:[19] labelling repeating answering requesting(action) requesting(answer) calling greeting protesting practicing Formalization[edit] ThereisnoagreedformalizationofSpeechActtheory.In1985,JohnSearleandD.Vanderveckenattemptedtogivesomegroundsofanillocutionarylogic.[20]OtherattemptshavebeenproposedbyPerMartin-Löfforatreatmentoftheconceptofassertioninsideintuitionistictypetheory,andbyCarloDallaPozza,withaproposalofaformalpragmaticsconnectingpropositionalcontent(givenwithclassicalsemantics)andillocutionaryforce(givenbyintuitionisticsemantics).Uptonowthemainbasicformalapplicationofspeechacttheoryaretobefoundinthefieldofhuman-computerinteractioninchatboxesandothertools. Incomputerscience[edit] In1991,computationalspeechactmodelsofhuman–computerconversationhavebeendeveloped,[21]andin2004speechacttheoryhasbeenusedtomodelconversationsforautomatedclassificationandretrieval.[22] Conversationforaction[edit] Thissectionpossiblycontainsoriginalresearch.Pleaseimproveitbyverifyingtheclaimsmadeandaddinginlinecitations.Statementsconsistingonlyoforiginalresearchshouldberemoved.(January2022)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Anotherhighly-influentialviewofSpeechActshasbeenintheconversationforactiondevelopedbyTerryWinogradandFernandoFloresintheir1986text"UnderstandingComputersandCognition:ANewFoundationforDesign".[23]Arguablythemostimportantpartoftheiranalysisliesinastate-transitiondiagraminChapter5,thatWinogradandFloresclaimunderliesthesignificantillocutionary(speechact)claimsoftwopartiesattemptingtocoordinateactionwithoneanother,nomatterwhethertheagentsinvolvedmightbehuman–human,human–computer,orcomputer–computer. Akeypartofthisanalysisisthecontentionthatonedimensionofthesocialdomain-trackingtheillocutionarystatusofthetransaction(whetherindividualparticipantsclaimthattheirinterestshavebeenmet,ornot)isveryreadilyconferredtoacomputerprocess,regardlessofwhetherthecomputerhasthemeanstoadequatelyrepresenttherealworldissuesunderlyingthatclaim.Thusacomputerinstantiatingtheconversationforactionhastheusefulabilitytomodelthestatusofthecurrentsocialrealityindependentofanyexternalrealityonwhichsocialclaimsmaybebased. Thistransactionalviewofspeechactshassignificantapplicationsinmanyareasinwhich(human)individualshavehaddifferentroles,forinstance,apatientandaphysicianmightmeetinanencounterinwhichthepatientmakesarequestfortreatment,thephysicianrespondswithacounter-offerinvolvingatreatmenttheyfeelisappropriate,andthepatientmightrespond,etc.Suchaconversationforactioncandescribeasituationinwhichanexternalobserver(suchasacomputerorhealthinformationsystem)maybeabletotracktheillocutionary(orspeechact)statusofnegotiationsbetweenthepatientandphysicianparticipantsevenintheabsenceofanyadequatemodeloftheillnessorproposedtreatments.ThekeyinsightprovidedbyWinogradandFloresisthatthestate-transitiondiagramrepresentingthesocial(Illocutionary)negotiationofthetwopartiesinvolvedisgenerallymuch,muchsimplerthananymodelrepresentingtheworldinwhichthosepartiesaremakingclaims;inshort,thesystemtrackingthestatusoftheconversationforactionneednotbeconcernedwithmodelingalloftherealitiesoftheexternalworld.Aconversationforactioniscriticallydependentuponcertainstereotypicalclaimsaboutthestatusoftheworldmadebythetwoparties.Thusaconversationforactioncanbereadilytrackedandfacilitatedbyadevicewithlittleornoabilitytomodelcircumstancesintherealworldotherthantheabilitytoregisterclaimsbyspecificagentsaboutadomain. Rules[edit] Inthepast,philosophyhasdiscussedrulesforwhenexpressionsareused.Thetworulesareconstitutiveandregulativerules.[24] TheconceptofconstitutiverulesfindsitsorigininWittgensteinandJohnRawls,[25]andhasbeenelaboratedbyG.C.J.Midgley,[26]MaxBlack,[27]G.H.vonWright,[28]DavidShwayder,[29]andJohnSearle.[30] Whereasregulativerulesareprescriptionsthatregulateapre-existingactivity(whoseexistenceislogicallyindependentoftherules),constitutiverulesconstituteanactivitytheexistenceofwhichislogicallydependentontherules. Forexample:trafficrulesareregulativerulesthatprescribecertainbehaviourinordertoregulatethetraffic.Withouttheseruleshowever,thetrafficwouldnotceasetobe.Incontrast:therulesofchessareconstitutiverulesthatconstitutethegame.Withouttheseruleschesswouldnotexist,sincethegameislogicallydependentontherules.[31] Inmultiagentuniverses[edit] Multi-agentsystemssometimesusespeechactlabelstoexpresstheintentofanagentwhenitsendsamessagetoanotheragent.Forexample,theintent"inform"inthemessage"inform(content)"maybeinterpretedasarequestthatthereceivingagentaddstheitem"content"toitsknowledge-base;thisisincontrasttothemessage"query(content)"whichmaybeinterpreted(dependingonthesemanticsemployed)asarequesttoseeiftheitemcontentiscurrentlyinthereceivingagentsknowledgebase.ThereareatleasttwostandardisationsofspeechactlabelledmessagingKQMLandFIPA. KQMLandFIPAarebasedontheSearlian,thatis,psychologicalsemanticsofspeechacts.MunindarP.Singhhaslongadvocatedmovingawayfromthepsychologicaltoasocialsemanticsofspeechacts—onethatwouldbeintunewithAustin'sconception.[32]AndrewJones[33]hasalsobeenacriticofthepsychologicalconception.Arecentcollectionofmanifestosbyresearchersinagentcommunicationreflectsagrowingrecognitioninthemultiagentsystemscommunityofthebenefitsofasocialsemantics.[34] Otherusesintechnology[edit] Anofficecanbeseenasasystemofspeechacts.TheabbreviationSAMPOstandsforSpeech-Act-basedofficeModelingapproach,which"studiesofficeactivitiesasaseriesofspeechactscreating,maintaining,modifying,reporting,andterminatingcommitments".[35] Speechactprofilinghasbeenusedtodetectdeceptioninsynchronouscomputer-mediatedcommunication.[36] Inpoliticalscience[edit] Inpoliticalscience,theCopenhagenSchooladoptsspeechactasaformoffelicitousspeechact(orsimply'facilitatingconditions'),wherebythespeaker,oftenpoliticiansorplayers,actinaccordancetothetruthbutinpreparationfortheaudiencetotakeactioninthedirectionsoftheplayerthataredrivenorincitedbytheact.Thisformsanobservableframeworkunderaspecifiedsubjectmatterfromtheplayer,andtheaudiencewhoare'under-theorised[would]remainoutsideoftheframeworkitself,andwouldbenefitfrombeingbothbroughtinanddrawnout.'[37]Itisbecausetheaudiencewouldnotbeinformedoftheintentionsoftheplayer,excepttofocusonthedisplayofthespeechactitself.Therefore,intheperspectiveoftheplayer,thetruthofthesubjectmatterisirrelevantexcepttheresultproducedviatheaudience.[38] Thestudyofspeechactsisprevalentinlegaltheorysincelawsthemselvescanbeinterpretedasspeechacts.Lawsissueoutacommandtotheirconstituentswhichcanberealizedasanaction.Whenformingalegalcontract,speechactscanbemadewhenpeoplearemakingoracceptinganoffer.[39]Consideringthetheoryoffreedomofspeech,somespeechactsmaynotbelegallyprotected.Forexample,adeaththreatisatypeofspeechactandisconsideredtoexistoutsideoftheprotectionoffreedomofspeechasitistreatedasacriminalact. Ineconomicsociology[edit] Inasociologicalperspective,NicolasBrissetadoptstheconceptofspeechactinordertounderstandhoweconomicmodelsparticipateinthemakingandthespreadingofrepresentationsinsideandoutsideofthescientificfield.Brissetarguesthatmodelsperformactionsindifferentfields(scientific,academic,practical,andpolitical).Thismultiplicityoffieldsinducesavarietyoffelicityconditionsandtypesofperformedactions.Thisperspectiveisacriticismoftheessentialismofphilosophicalmodellingstudies.[40] Infinance,itispossibletounderstandmathematicalmodelsasspeechacts:in2016thenotionof"financialLogos"wasdefinedasthespeechactofmathematicalmodellingoffinancialrisks.TheactionofthefinancialLogosonfinancialpracticesistheframingoffinancialdecision-makingbyriskmodelling.[41] Seealso[edit] Analogy Cooperativeprinciple Directionoffit Entailment(pragmatics) Implicature Metaphor Phatic Pragmatics Presupposition Politenesstheory Relevancetheory#Speechacts Notes[edit] ^abcd1911–1960.,Austin,J.L.(JohnLangshaw)(1975).Howtodothingswithwords.Urmson,J.O.,Sbisà,Marina.(2nd ed.).Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0674411524.OCLC 1811317.{{citebook}}:CS1maint:numericnames:authorslist(link) ^Ingber,Warren;Bach,Kent;Harnish,RobertM.(January1982)."LinguisticCommunicationandSpeechActs".ThePhilosophicalReview.91(1):134.doi:10.2307/2184680.JSTOR 2184680. ^"TheCenterforAdvancedResearchonLanguageAcquisition(CARLA):PragmaticsandSpeechActs".carla.umn.edu.Retrieved2019-02-20. ^Bach,Kent."SpeechActs."SpeechActs.RoutledgeEncyclopediaofPhilosophy,n.d.Web.10Feb.2014 ^Littlejohn,S.(2009).Speechacttheory.InS.Littlejohn,&K.Foss(Eds.),Encyclopediaofcommunicationtheory.(pp.919–921).ThousandOaks,CA:SAGEPublications,Inc.doi:10.4135/9781412959384.n356 ^"Amanmaysee,andhear,andremember,andjudge,andreason;hemaydeliberateandformpurposes,andexecutethem,withouttheinterventionofanyotherintelligentbeing.Theyaresolitaryacts.Butwhenheasksaquestionforinformation,whenhetestifiesafact,whenhegivesacommandtohisservant,whenhemakesapromise,orentersintoacontract,thesearesocialactsofmind,andcanhavenoexistencewithouttheinterventionofsomeotherintelligentbeing,whoactsapartinthem.Betweentheoperationsofthemind,which,forwantofamorepropername,Ihavecalledsolitary,andthoseIhavecalledsocial,thereisthisveryremarkabledistinction,that,inthesolitary,theexpressionofthembywords,oranyothersensiblesign,isaccidental.Theymayexist,andbecomplete,withoutbeingexpressed,withoutbeingknowntoanyotherperson.But,inthesocialoperations,theexpressionisessential.Theycannotexistwithoutbeingexpressedbywordsorsigns,andknowntotheotherparty."Cf.Mulligan,K.Promisingsandothersocialacts–theirconstituentsandstructure.inMulligan,K.,editorSpeechActandSachverhalt:ReinachandtheFoundationsofRealistPhenomenology.Nijhoff,Dordrecht/Boston/Lancaster1987.QuotefromReid1969,437–438). ^Mulligan,K.Promisingsandothersocialacts–theirconstituentsandstructure.inMulligan,K.,editorSpeechActandSachverhalt:ReinachandtheFoundationsofRealistPhenomenology.Nijhoff,Dordrecht/Boston/Lancaster1987. ^MatejkaGrgic,IgorZ.Žagar,HowtoDoThingswithTenseandAspect:PerformativitybeforeAustin,NewcastleuponTyne,CambridgeScholarsPublishing,2011. ^"DieAxiomatikderSprachwissenschaften”,Kant-Studien38(1933),43,wherehediscussesaTheoriederSprechhandlungen ^Sprachtheorie(Jena:Fischer,1934)whereheuses"Sprechhandlung"and"TheoriederSprechakte" ^Gibbon,D.,"ANewLookatIntonationSyntaxandSemantics",inA.R.James&P.Westney,eds.,NewLinguisticImpulsesinForeignLanguageTeaching(Tübingen:GunterNarrVerlag,1981),esp.pp.88–93. ^Searle,JohnR.(July2002).ConsciousnessandLanguagebyJohnR.Searle.CambridgeCore.doi:10.1017/cbo9780511606366.ISBN 9780511606366.Retrieved2019-03-04. ^Birner,BettyJ.(2013).BlackwellTextbookInLinguistics.Wiley-Blackwell.p. 187. ^Essaysinspeechacttheory.Vanderveken,Daniel.,Kubo,Susumu.Amsterdam:J.BenjaminsPub.Co.2001.ISBN 9789027298157.OCLC 70766237.{{citebook}}:CS1maint:others(link) ^Searle,JohnR.(1975)."IndirectSpeechActs".SpeechActs.SyntaxandSemantics.Vol. 3.NewYork:AcademicPress.pp. 59–82.ISBN 0-12-785423-1. ^Mann,StevenT.(March2009)."'You'reFired':AnApplicationofSpeechActTheoryto2Samuel15.23—16.14".JournalfortheStudyoftheOldTestament.33(3):315–334.doi:10.1177/0309089209102499.ISSN 0309-0892.S2CID 170553371. ^Dennis.,Kurzon(1986).Itisherebyperformed-- :explorationsinlegalspeechacts.Amsterdam:J.BenjaminsPub.Co.ISBN 9789027279293.OCLC 637671814. ^"SpeechActsandConversation".www.sas.upenn.edu.Retrieved2019-03-04. ^Dore,John(1975)."Holophrases,SpeechActsandLanguageUniversals".JournalofChildLanguage.2:21–40.doi:10.1017/S0305000900000878.ProQuest 85490541. ^Searle,J.R.,Vandervecken,D.:FoundationsofIllocutionaryLogic.CambridgeUniversityPress:Cambridge1985 ^R.A.Morelli;J.D.Bronzino;J.W.Goethe(1991).Acomputationalspeech-actmodelofhuman-computerconversations.BioengineeringConference,1991.,Proceedingsofthe1991IEEESeventeenthAnnualNortheast.Hartford,CT.pp. 263–264.doi:10.1109/NEBC.1991.154675. ^DouglasP.Twitchell;MarkAdkins;JayF.NunamakerJr.;JudeeK.Burgoon(2004).UsingSpeechActTheorytoModelConversationsforAutomatedClassificationandRetrieval(PDF).Proceedingsofthe9thInternationalWorkingConferenceontheLanguage-ActionPerspectiveonCommunicationModelling(LAP2004). ^Winograd,Terry(1986).Understandingcomputersandcognition :anewfoundationfordesign.Norwood,NJ.ISBN 0-89391-050-3.OCLC 11727403. ^Searle,John."WhatisaSpeechAct?"(PDF). ^JohnRawls:TwoConceptsofRules(1955) ^G.C.J.Midgley:LinguisticRules(1959) ^MaxBlack:ModelsandMetaphors(1962) ^G.H.vonWright:NormandAction(1963) ^DavidSchwayder:TheStratificationofBehaviour(1965) ^Searle:SpeechActs(1969) ^KathrinGlüerandPeterPagin:RulesofMeaningandPracticalReasoning(1998) ^"SocialandPsychologicalCommitmentsinMultiagentSystems"(PDF).Retrieved24April2013. ^"AndrewJ.I.Jones". ^"ResearchDirectionsinAgentCommunication"(PDF). ^Auramäki,Esa;Lehtinen,Erkki;Lyytinen,Kalle(1988-04-01)."Aspeech-act-basedofficemodelingapproach".ACMTransactionsonInformationSystems.6(2):126–152.doi:10.1145/45941.214328.ISSN 1046-8188.S2CID 16952302. ^"Detectingdeceptioninsynchronouscomputer-mediatedcommunicationusingspeechactprofiling". ^http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/1232/1/WRAP_McDonald_0671572-pais-270709-mcdonald_securitisation_and_construction_of_security_ejir_forthcoming_2008.pdf[bareURLPDF] ^BarryBuzan,OleWaeverandJaapdeWilde;Buzan,ResearchProfessorofInternationalStudiesCentrefortheStudyofDemocracyBarry;Etc;Wæver,Ole;Waever,Ole;Wilde,Jaapde(1998).Security:ANewFrameworkforAnalysis.LynneRiennerPublishers.ISBN 978-1-55587-784-2. ^"LegalTheoryLexicon:SpeechActs".LegalTheoryBlog.Retrieved2018-04-15. ^Brisset,Nicolas(2018-01-02)."Modelsasspeechacts:thetellingcaseoffinancialmodels"(PDF).JournalofEconomicMethodology.25(1):21–41.doi:10.1080/1350178X.2018.1419105.ISSN 1350-178X.S2CID 148612438. ^Walter,Christian(2016)."ThefinancialLogos :Theframingoffinancialdecision-makingbymathematicalmodelling".ResearchinInternationalBusinessandFinance.37:597–604.doi:10.1016/j.ribaf.2016.01.022. Bibliography[edit] JohnLangshawAustin:HowtoDoThingsWithWords.Cambridge(Mass.)1962,paperback:HarvardUniversityPress,2ndedition,2005,ISBN 0-674-41152-8. WilliamP.Alston:'IllocutionaryActsandSentenceMeaning'.Ithaca:CornellUniversityPress2000,ISBN 0-8014-3669-9. Bach,Kent."SpeechActs."SpeechActs.RoutledgeEncyclopediaofPhilosophy,n.d.Web.10Feb.2014. Doerge,FriedrichChristoph.IllocutionaryActs–Austin'sAccountandWhatSearleMadeOutofIt..Tuebingen2006. Dorschel,Andreas,'Whatisittounderstandadirectivespeechact?',in:AustralasianJournalofPhilosophyLXVII(1989),nr.3,pp. 319–340. JohnSearle,SpeechActs,CambridgeUniversityPress1969,ISBN 0-521-09626-X. JohnSearle,"Indirectspeechacts."InSyntaxandSemantics,3:SpeechActs,ed.P.Cole&J.L.Morgan,pp. 59–82.NewYork:AcademicPress.(1975).ReprintedinPragmatics:AReader,ed.S.Davis,pp. 265–277.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.(1991) GeoSiegwart,"AlethicActsandAlethiologicalReflection.AnOutlineofConstructivePhilosophyofTruth."InTruthandSpeechActs:Studiesinthephilosophyoflanguage,ed.D.Greimann&G.Siegwart,pp. 41–58.NewYork:Routledge.(2007) TerryWinograd&FernandoFlores,UnderstandingComputersandCognition:ANewFoundationforDesign,AblexPublishingCorp,(Norwood),1986.ISBN 0-89391-050-3. BirgitErler:Thespeechactofforbiddinganditsrealizations:Alinguisticanalysis.Saarbrücken:VDMVerlagDr.Müller,2010,ISBN 978-3-639-23275-2. RobertMaximiliandeGaynesford:Illocutionaryacts,Subordination,andSilencinginAnalysis,July2009. Outi,Malmivuori:ZuStandundEntwicklungderSprechakttheorie.ZuGrundsätzenderTheoriedesspachlichenHandelns.AkademikerVerlag.2012.ISBN 978-3-639-44043-0. MattMcDonald:SecuritisationandtheConstructionofSecurity.UniversityofWarwick.(2008) BarryBuzan,OleWaever&JaapdeWilde:Security:ANewFrameworkforAnalysis.ColoradoBoulder:LynneRienner.(1998) Furtherreading[edit] Schuhmann,Karl;Smith,Barry(1990)."ElementsofSpeechActTheoryintheWorkofThomasReid"(PDF).HistoryofPhilosophyQuarterly.7:47–66.S2CID 18906253.Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)on2019-08-05. Brock,Jarrett(1981)."AnIntroductiontoPeirce'sTheoryofSpeechActs".TransactionsoftheCharlesS.PeirceSociety.17(4):319–326.JSTOR 40319937. Externallinks[edit] Green,Mitchell."SpeechActs".InZalta,EdwardN.(ed.).StanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy. SpeechActsentryfromRoutledgeEncyclopediaofPhilosophy,byKentBach BarrySmith,TowardsaHistoryofSpeechActTheoryed.M.McDonald,pp. 2–3.Warwick:UniversityofWarwick.(2008) FoundationforIntelligentPhysicalAgents StrategiesforLearningSpeechActsinJapanesebyNorikoIshihara vtePhilosophyoflanguageIndexoflanguagearticlesPhilosophers Plato(Cratylus) Gorgias Confucius Xunzi Aristotle Stoics Pyrrhonists Scholasticism IbnRushd IbnKhaldun ThomasHobbes GottfriedWilhelmLeibniz JohannHerder LudwigNoiré WilhelmvonHumboldt FritzMauthner PaulRicœur FerdinanddeSaussure GottlobFrege FranzBoas PaulTillich EdwardSapir LeonardBloomfield Zhuangzi HenriBergson LevVygotsky LudwigWittgenstein PhilosophicalInvestigations TractatusLogico-Philosophicus BertrandRussell RudolfCarnap JacquesDerrida OfGrammatology LimitedInc BenjaminLeeWhorf GustavBergmann J.L.Austin NoamChomsky Hans-GeorgGadamer SaulKripke A.J.Ayer G.E.M.Anscombe JaakkoHintikka MichaelDummett DonaldDavidson RogerGibson PaulGrice GilbertRyle P.F.Strawson WillardVanOrmanQuine HilaryPutnam DavidLewis RobertStalnaker JohnSearle JoxeAzurmendi ScottSoames StephenYablo JohnHawthorne StephenNeale PaulWatzlawick RichardMontague BarbaraPartee Theories Causaltheoryofreference Contrasttheoryofmeaning Contrastivism Conventionalism Cratylism Deconstruction Descriptivism Directreferencetheory Dramatism Dynamicsemantics Expressivism Inquisitivesemantics Linguisticdeterminism Mediatedreferencetheory Nominalism Non-cognitivism Phallogocentrism Relevancetheory Semanticexternalism Semanticholism Situationsemantics Structuralism Suppositiontheory Symbiosism Theologicalnoncognitivism Theoryofdescriptions(Definitedescription) Unilalianism Verificationtheory Concepts Ambiguity Cant Linguisticrelativity Language Truth-bearer Proposition Use–mentiondistinction Concept Categories Set Class Familyresemblance Intension Logicalform Metalanguage Mentalrepresentation Modality(naturallanguage) Presupposition Principleofcompositionality Property Sign Senseandreference Speechact Symbol Sentence Statement more... 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