International Phonetic Alphabet - Wikipedia

The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is an alphabetic system of phonetic notation based primarily on the Latin script. It was devised by the ... InternationalPhoneticAlphabet FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Alphabeticsystemofphoneticnotation ForanintroductoryguideonIPAsymbolswithaudio,seeHelp:IPA.FortheusageoftheIPAonWikipedia,seeHelp:IPA/IntroductionandHelp:IPA/English. FortheICAOspellingalphabet,seeNATOspellingalphabet. InternationalPhoneticAlphabet"IPA"inIPA([aɪpʰiːeɪ])ScripttypeAlphabet –partiallyfeaturalTimeperiodsince1888LanguagesUsedforphoneticandphonemictranscriptionofanylanguageRelatedscriptsParentsystemsPalaeotypealphabet,EnglishPhonotypicAlphabetRomicalphabetInternationalPhoneticAlphabet Thisarticlecontainsphoneticsymbols.Withoutproperrenderingsupport,youmayseequestionmarks,boxes,orothersymbolsinsteadofphoneticsymbols. TheofficialchartoftheIPA,revisedin2020 TheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA)isanalphabeticsystemofphoneticnotationbasedprimarilyontheLatinscript.ItwasdevisedbytheInternationalPhoneticAssociationinthelate19thcenturyasastandardizedrepresentationofspeechsoundsinwrittenform.[1]TheIPAisusedbylexicographers,foreignlanguagestudentsandteachers,linguists,speech–languagepathologists,singers,actors,constructedlanguagecreatorsandtranslators.[2][3] TheIPAisdesignedtorepresentthosequalitiesofspeechthatarepartoflexical(andtoalimitedextentprosodic)soundsinorallanguage:phones,phonemes,intonationandtheseparationofwordsandsyllables.[1]Torepresentadditionalqualitiesofspeech,suchastoothgnashing,lisping,andsoundsmadewithacleftlipandcleftpalate,anextendedsetofsymbols,theextensionstotheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet,maybeused.[2] IPAsymbolsarecomposedofoneormoreelementsoftwobasictypes,lettersanddiacritics.Forexample,thesoundoftheEnglishletter⟨t⟩maybetranscribedinIPAwithasingleletter,[t],orwithaletterplusdiacritics,[t̺ʰ],dependingonhowpreciseonewishestobe.[note1]Slashesareusedtosignalphonemictranscription;thus/t/ismoreabstractthaneither[t̺ʰ]or[t]andmightrefertoeither,dependingonthecontextandlanguage. Occasionallylettersordiacriticsareadded,removedormodifiedbytheInternationalPhoneticAssociation.Asofthemostrecentchangein2005,[4]thereare107segmentalletters,anindefinitelylargenumberofsuprasegmentalletters,44diacritics(notcountingcomposites)andfourextra-lexicalprosodicmarksintheIPA.MostoftheseareshowninthecurrentIPAchart,postedbelowinthisarticleandatthewebsiteoftheIPA.[5] Contents 1History 2Description 2.1Letterforms 2.2Typographyandiconicity 2.3Bracketsandtranscriptiondelimiters 2.4Cursiveforms 2.5Letterg 3ModifyingtheIPAchart 4Usage 4.1Linguists 4.2Dictionaries 4.2.1English 4.2.2Otherlanguages 4.3Standardorthographiesandcasevariants 4.4Classicalsinging 5Letters 5.1Consonants 5.1.1Pulmonicconsonants 5.1.2Non-pulmonicconsonants 5.1.3Affricates 5.1.4Co-articulatedconsonants 5.2Vowels 5.2.1Diphthongs 6Diacriticsandprosodicnotation 6.1Suprasegmentals 6.1.1Stress 6.1.2Boundarymarkers 6.1.3Pitchandtone 6.2Comparativedegree 7Ambiguouscharacters 8SuperscriptIPA 9Obsoleteandnonstandardsymbols 10Extensions 11Associatednotation 11.1Associatedsymbols 11.2Capitalletters 12Segmentswithoutletters 12.1Consonants 12.2Vowels 13Symbolnames 14Computersupport 14.1Unicode 14.2IPAnumbers 14.3Typefaces 14.4ASCIIandkeyboardtransliterations 14.5IETFlanguagetags 14.6Computerinputusingon-screenkeyboard 15Seealso 16Notes 17References 18Furtherreading 19Externallinks History[edit] Mainarticle:HistoryoftheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet In1886,agroupofFrenchandBritishlanguageteachers,ledbytheFrenchlinguistPaulPassy,formedwhatwouldbeknownfrom1897onwardsastheInternationalPhoneticAssociation(inFrench,l'Associationphonétiqueinternationale).[6]TheiroriginalalphabetwasbasedonaspellingreformforEnglishknownastheRomicalphabet,buttomakeitusableforotherlanguagesthevaluesofthesymbolswereallowedtovaryfromlanguagetolanguage.[7]Forexample,thesound[ʃ](theshinshoe)wasoriginallyrepresentedwiththeletter⟨c⟩inEnglish,butwiththedigraph⟨ch⟩inFrench.[6]In1888,thealphabetwasrevisedsoastobeuniformacrosslanguages,thusprovidingthebaseforallfuturerevisions.[6][8]TheideaofmakingtheIPAwasfirstsuggestedbyOttoJesperseninalettertoPaulPassy.ItwasdevelopedbyAlexanderJohnEllis,HenrySweet,DanielJones,andPassy.[9] Sinceitscreation,theIPAhasundergoneanumberofrevisions.Afterrevisionsandexpansionsfromthe1890stothe1940s,theIPAremainedprimarilyunchangeduntiltheKielConventionin1989.Aminorrevisiontookplacein1993withtheadditionoffourlettersformidcentralvowels[2]andtheremovaloflettersforvoicelessimplosives.[10]ThealphabetwaslastrevisedinMay2005withtheadditionofaletterforalabiodentalflap.[11]Apartfromtheadditionandremovalofsymbols,changestotheIPAhaveconsistedlargelyofrenamingsymbolsandcategoriesandinmodifyingtypefaces.[2] ExtensionstotheInternationalPhoneticAlphabetforspeechpathology(extIPA)werecreatedin1990andwereofficiallyadoptedbytheInternationalClinicalPhoneticsandLinguisticsAssociationin1994.[12] Description[edit] ThegeneralprincipleoftheIPAistoprovideoneletterforeachdistinctivesound(speechsegment).[13]Thismeansthat: Itdoesnotnormallyusecombinationsofletterstorepresentsinglesounds,thewayEnglishdoeswith⟨sh⟩,⟨th⟩and⟨ng⟩,orsingleletterstorepresentmultiplesounds,theway⟨x⟩represents/ks/or/ɡz/inEnglish. Therearenolettersthathavecontext-dependentsoundvalues,theway⟨c⟩and⟨g⟩inseveralEuropeanlanguageshavea"hard"or"soft"pronunciation. TheIPAdoesnotusuallyhaveseparatelettersfortwosoundsifnoknownlanguagemakesadistinctionbetweenthem,apropertyknownas"selectiveness".[2][note2]However,ifalargenumberofphonemicallydistinctletterscanbederivedwithadiacritic,thatmaybeusedinstead.[note3] Thealphabetisdesignedfortranscribingsounds(phones),notphonemes,thoughitisusedforphonemictranscriptionaswell.Afewlettersthatdidnotindicatespecificsoundshavebeenretired(⟨ˇ⟩,onceusedforthe"compound"toneofSwedishandNorwegian,and⟨ƞ⟩,onceusedforthemoraicnasalofJapanese),thoughoneremains:⟨ɧ⟩,usedforthesj-soundofSwedish.WhentheIPAisusedforphonemictranscription,theletter–soundcorrespondencecanberatherloose.Forexample,⟨c⟩and⟨ɟ⟩areusedintheIPAHandbookfor/t͡ʃ/and/d͡ʒ/. AmongthesymbolsoftheIPA,107lettersrepresentconsonantsandvowels,31diacriticsareusedtomodifythese,and17additionalsignsindicatesuprasegmentalqualitiessuchaslength,tone,stress,andintonation.[note4]Theseareorganizedintoachart;thechartdisplayedhereistheofficialchartaspostedatthewebsiteoftheIPA. Letterforms[edit] TheletterschosenfortheIPAaremeanttoharmonizewiththeLatinalphabet.[note5]Forthisreason,mostlettersareeitherLatinorGreek,ormodificationsthereof.Somelettersareneither:forexample,theletterdenotingtheglottalstop,⟨ʔ⟩,originallyhadtheformofadotlessquestionmark,andderivesfromanapostrophe.Afewletters,suchasthatofthevoicedpharyngealfricative,⟨ʕ⟩,wereinspiredbyotherwritingsystems(inthiscase,theArabicletter⟨ﻉ⟩,ʿayn,viathereversedapostrophe).[10] Someletterformsderivefromexistingletters: Theright-swingingtail,asin⟨ʈɖɳɽʂʐɻɭ⟩,marksretroflexarticulation.Itderivesfromthehookofanr. Thetophook,asin⟨ɠɗɓ⟩,marksimplosion. Severalnasalconsonantsarebasedontheform⟨n⟩:⟨nɲɳŋ⟩.⟨ɲ⟩and⟨ŋ⟩derivefromligaturesofgnandng,and⟨ɱ⟩isanadhocimitationof⟨ŋ⟩. Lettersturned180degrees,suchas⟨ɐɔəɟɓɥɾɯɹʇʊʌʍʎ⟩(from⟨acefɡhᴊmrtΩvwy⟩),[14]wheneithertheoriginalletter(e.g.,⟨ɐəɹʇʍ⟩)ortheturnedone(e.g.,⟨ɔɟɓɥɾɯʌʎ⟩)isreminiscentofthetargetsound.Thiswaseasilydoneintheeraofmechanicaltypesetting,andhadtheadvantageofnotrequiringthecastingofspecialtypeforIPAsymbols,muchasthesametypehadoftenbeenusedforbandq,dandp,nandu,6and9toreducecosts. Thesmallcapitalletters⟨ɢʜʟɴʀʁ⟩aremoregutturalthantheirbaseletters.⟨ʙ⟩isanexception. Typographyandiconicity[edit] TheInternationalPhoneticAlphabetisbasedontheLatinalphabet,usingasfewnon-Latinformsaspossible.[6]TheAssociationcreatedtheIPAsothatthesoundvaluesofmostconsonantletterstakenfromtheLatinalphabetwouldcorrespondto"internationalusage"(approximatelyClassicalLatin).[6]Hence,theletters⟨b⟩,⟨d⟩,⟨f⟩,(hard)⟨ɡ⟩,(non-silent)⟨h⟩,(unaspirated)⟨k⟩,⟨l⟩,⟨m⟩,⟨n⟩,(unaspirated)⟨p⟩,(voiceless)⟨s⟩,(unaspirated)⟨t⟩,⟨v⟩,⟨w⟩,and⟨z⟩havethevaluesusedinEnglish;andthevowellettersfromtheLatinalphabet(⟨a⟩,⟨e⟩,⟨i⟩,⟨o⟩,⟨u⟩)correspondtothe(long)soundvaluesofLatin:[i]islikethevowelinmachine,[u]isasinrule,etc.OtherlettersmaydifferfromEnglish,butareusedwiththesevaluesinotherEuropeanlanguages,suchas⟨j⟩,⟨r⟩,and⟨y⟩. Thisinventorywasextendedbyusingsmall-capitalandcursiveforms,diacriticsandrotation.TherearealsoseveralsymbolsderivedortakenfromtheGreekalphabet,thoughthesoundvaluesmaydiffer.Forexample,⟨ʋ⟩isavowelinGreek,butanonlyindirectlyrelatedconsonantintheIPA.Formostofthese,subtlydifferentglyphshapeshavebeendevisedfortheIPA,namely⟨ɑ⟩,⟨ꞵ⟩,⟨ɣ⟩,⟨ɛ⟩,⟨ɸ⟩,⟨ꭓ⟩,and⟨ʋ⟩,whichareencodedinUnicodeseparatelyfromtheirparentGreekletters,thoughoneofthem–⟨θ⟩–isnot,whilebothLatin⟨ꞵ⟩,⟨ꭓ⟩andGreek⟨β⟩,⟨χ⟩areincommonuse.[15] ThesoundvaluesofmodifiedLatinletterscanoftenbederivedfromthoseoftheoriginalletters.[16]Forexample,letterswitharightward-facinghookatthebottomrepresentretroflexconsonants;andsmallcapitallettersusuallyrepresentuvularconsonants.Apartfromthefactthatcertainkindsofmodificationtotheshapeofalettergenerallycorrespondtocertainkindsofmodificationtothesoundrepresented,thereisnowaytodeducethesoundrepresentedbyasymbolfromitsshape(asforexampleinVisibleSpeech)norevenanysystematicrelationbetweensignsandthesoundstheyrepresent(asinHangul). Beyondthelettersthemselves,thereareavarietyofsecondarysymbolswhichaidintranscription.DiacriticmarkscanbecombinedwithIPAletterstotranscribemodifiedphoneticvaluesorsecondaryarticulations.Therearealsospecialsymbolsforsuprasegmentalfeaturessuchasstressandtonethatareoftenemployed. Bracketsandtranscriptiondelimiters[edit] Therearetwoprincipaltypesofbracketsusedtosetoff(delimit)IPAtranscriptions: Symbol Use [ ... ] Squarebracketsareusedwithphoneticnotation,whetherbroadornarrow[17]–thatis,foractualpronunciation,possiblyincludingdetailsofthepronunciationthatmaynotbeusedfordistinguishingwordsinthelanguagebeingtranscribed,whichtheauthornonethelesswishestodocument.SuchphoneticnotationistheprimaryfunctionoftheIPA. / ... / Slashes[note6]areusedforabstractphonemicnotation,[17]whichnoteonlyfeaturesthataredistinctiveinthelanguage,withoutanyextraneousdetail.Forexample,whilethe'p'soundsofEnglishpinandspinarepronounceddifferently(andthisdifferencewouldbemeaningfulinsomelanguages),thedifferenceisnotmeaningfulinEnglish.Thusphonemicallythewordsareusuallyanalyzedas/ˈpɪn/and/ˈspɪn/,withthesamephoneme/p/.Tocapturethedifferencebetweenthem(theallophonesof/p/),theycanbetranscribedphoneticallyas[pʰɪn]and[spɪn].PhonemicnotationcommonlyusesIPAsymbolsthatareratherclosetothedefaultpronunciationofaphoneme,butforlegibilityorotherreasonscanusesymbolsforsomethingthatdivergesfromtheirdesignatedvalues,suchas/c,ɟ/foraffricates,asfoundintheHandbook,or/r/(whichaccordingtotheIPAisatrill)forEnglishr. Otherconventionsarelesscommonlyseen: Symbol Use { ... } Braces("curlybrackets")areusedforprosodicnotation.[18]SeeExtensionstotheInternationalPhoneticAlphabetforexamplesinthissystem. ( ... ) Parenthesesareusedforindistinguishable[17]orunidentifiedutterances.Theyarealsoseenforsilentarticulation(mouthing),[19]wheretheexpectedphonetictranscriptionisderivedfromlip-reading,andwithperiodstoindicatesilentpauses,forexample(…)or(2sec).ThelatterusageismadeofficialintheextIPA,withunidentifiedsegmentscircled.[20] ⸨ ... ⸩ Doubleparenthesesindicateeitheratranscriptionofobscuredspeechoradescriptionoftheobscuringnoise.TheIPAspecifiesthattheymarktheobscuredsound,[18]asin⸨2σ⸩,twoaudiblesyllablesobscuredbyanothersound.ThecurrentextIPAspecificationsprescribedoubleparenthesesfortheextraneousnoise,suchas⸨cough⸩or⸨knock⸩foraknockonadoor,buttheIPAHandbookidentifiesIPAandextIPAusageasequivalent.[21]EarlypublicationsoftheextIPAexplaindoubleparenthesesasmarking"uncertaintybecauseofnoisewhichobscurestherecording,"andthatwithinthem"maybeindicatedasmuchdetailasthetranscribercandetect."[22] AllthreeoftheaboveareprovidedbytheIPAHandbook.Thefollowingarenot,butmaybeseeninIPAtranscriptionorinassociatedmaterial(especiallyanglebrackets): Symbol Use ⟦ ... ⟧ Doublesquarebracketsareusedforextra-precise(especiallynarrow)transcription.ThisisconsistentwiththeIPAconventionofdoublingasymboltoindicategreaterdegree.DoublebracketsmayindicatethataletterhasitscardinalIPAvalue.Forexample,⟦a⟧isanopenfrontvowel,ratherthantheperhapsslightlydifferentvalue(suchasopencentral)that"[a]"maybeusedtotranscribeinaparticularlanguage.Thustwovowelstranscribedforeasylegibilityas⟨[e]⟩and⟨[ɛ]⟩maybeclarifiedasactuallybeing⟦e̝⟧and⟦e⟧;⟨[ð]⟩maybemoreprecisely⟦ð̠̞ˠ⟧.[23]Doublebracketsmayalsobeusedforaspecifictokenorspeaker,forexamplethepronunciationofachildasopposedtotheadultphoneticpronunciationthatistheirtarget.[24] ⫽ ... ⫽| ... |‖ ... ‖{ ... } Doubleslashesareusedformorphophonemictranscription.ThisisalsoconsistentwiththeIPAconventionofdoublingasymboltoindicategreaterdegree(inthiscase,moreabstractthanphonemictranscription). Othersymbolssometimesseenformorphophonemictranscriptionarepipesanddoublepipes(asinAmericanistphoneticnotation)andbraces(fromsettheory,especiallywhenenclosingthesetofphonemesthatconstitutethemorphophoneme,e.g.{td}or{t|d}),buttheseothersymbolsconflictwithIPAindicationsofprosody.[25]Seemorphophonologyforexamples. ⟨ ... ⟩⟪ ... ⟫ Anglebrackets[note7]areusedtomarkbothorthographyinLatinscriptandtransliterationfromanotherscript;thisnotationisusedtoidentifyanindividualgraphemeofanyscript.[26][27]WithintheIPA,theyareusedtoindicatethatthelettersstandforthemselvesandnotforthesoundvaluesthattheycarry.Forexample,⟨cot⟩wouldbeusedfortheorthographyoftheEnglishwordcot,asopposedtoitspronunciation/ˈkɒt/.Italicsareusualwhenwordsarewrittenasthemselves(as"cot"intheprevioussentence)ratherthantospecificallyshowtheirorthography.Italicmarkupisnotevidenttosight-impairedreaderswhorelyonscreenreadertechnology.Itmayoccasionallybeusefultodistinguishoriginalorthographyfromtransliterationwithdoubleanglebrackets. Forexample, InsomeEnglishaccents,thephoneme/l/,whichisusuallyspelledas⟨l⟩or⟨ll⟩,isarticulatedastwodistinctallophones:theclear[l]occursbeforevowelsandtheconsonant/j/,whereasthedark[ɫ]/[lˠ]occursbeforeconsonants,except/j/,andattheendofwords.[28] Cursiveforms[edit] Mainarticle:CursiveformsoftheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet IPAlettershavecursiveformsdesignedforuseinmanuscriptsandwhentakingfieldnotes,butthe1999HandbookoftheInternationalPhoneticAssociationrecommendedagainsttheiruse,ascursiveIPAis"harderformostpeopletodecipher."[29] Letterg[edit] Typographicvariantsincludeadouble-storyandsingle-storyg. Intheearlystagesofthealphabet,thetypographicvariantsofg,opentail⟨ɡ⟩()andlooptail⟨g⟩(),representeddifferentvalues,butarenowregardedasequivalents.Opentail⟨ɡ⟩hasalwaysrepresentedavoicedvelarplosive,while⟨⟩wasdistinguishedfrom⟨ɡ⟩andrepresentedavoicedvelarfricativefrom1895to1900.[30][31]Subsequently,⟨ǥ⟩representedthefricative,until1931whenitwasreplacedagainby⟨ɣ⟩.[32] In1948,theCounciloftheAssociationrecognized⟨ɡ⟩and⟨⟩astypographicequivalents,[33]andthisdecisionwasreaffirmedin1993.[34]Whilethe1949PrinciplesoftheInternationalPhoneticAssociationrecommendedtheuseof⟨⟩foravelarplosiveand⟨ɡ⟩foranadvancedoneforlanguageswhereitispreferabletodistinguishthetwo,suchasRussian,[35]thispracticenevercaughton.[36]The1999HandbookoftheInternationalPhoneticAssociation,thesuccessortothePrinciples,abandonedtherecommendationandacknowledgedbothshapesasacceptablevariants.[37] ModifyingtheIPAchart[edit] TheauthorsoftextbooksorsimilarpublicationsoftencreaterevisedversionsoftheIPAcharttoexpresstheirownpreferencesorneeds.Theimagedisplaysonesuchversion.Allpulmonicconsonantsaremovedtotheconsonantchart.OnlytheblacksymbolsareontheofficialIPAchart;additionalsymbolsareingrey.ThegreyfricativesarepartoftheextIPA,andthegreyretroflexlettersarementionedorimplicitintheHandbook.ThegreyclickisaretiredIPAletterthatisstillinuse. TheInternationalPhoneticAlphabetisoccasionallymodifiedbytheAssociation.Aftereachmodification,theAssociationprovidesanupdatedsimplifiedpresentationofthealphabetintheformofachart.(SeeHistoryoftheIPA.)NotallaspectsofthealphabetcanbeaccommodatedinachartofthesizepublishedbytheIPA.Thealveolo-palatalandepiglottalconsonants,forexample,arenotincludedintheconsonantchartforreasonsofspaceratherthanoftheory(twoadditionalcolumnswouldberequired,onebetweentheretroflexandpalatalcolumnsandtheotherbetweenthepharyngealandglottalcolumns),andthelateralflapwouldrequireanadditionalrowforthatsingleconsonant,sotheyarelistedinsteadunderthecatchallblockof"othersymbols".[38]Theindefinitelylargenumberoftoneletterswouldmakeafullaccountingimpracticalevenonalargerpage,andonlyafewexamplesareshown,andeventhetonediacriticsarenotcomplete;thereversedtonelettersarenotillustratedatall. TheprocedureformodifyingthealphabetorthechartistoproposethechangeintheJournaloftheIPA.(See,forexample,August2008onanopencentralunroundedvowelandAugust2011oncentralapproximants.)[39]ReactionstotheproposalmaybepublishedinthesameorsubsequentissuesoftheJournal(asinAugust2009ontheopencentralvowel).[40]AformalproposalisthenputtotheCounciloftheIPA[41]–whichiselectedbythemembership[42]–forfurtherdiscussionandaformalvote.[43][44] Nonetheless,manyusersofthealphabet,includingtheleadershipoftheAssociationitself,deviatefromthisnorm.[45] TheJournaloftheIPAfindsitacceptabletomixIPAandextIPAsymbolsinconsonantchartsintheirarticles.(Forinstance,includingtheextIPAletter⟨𝼆⟩,ratherthan⟨ʎ̝̊⟩,inanillustrationoftheIPA.)[46] Usage[edit] Furtherinformation:Phonetictranscription Ofmorethan160IPAsymbols,relativelyfewwillbeusedtotranscribespeechinanyonelanguage,withvariouslevelsofprecision.Aprecisephonetictranscription,inwhichsoundsarespecifiedindetail,isknownasanarrowtranscription.Acoarsertranscriptionwithlessdetailiscalledabroadtranscription.Botharerelativeterms,andbotharegenerallyenclosedinsquarebrackets.[1]Broadphonetictranscriptionsmayrestrictthemselvestoeasilyhearddetails,oronlytodetailsthatarerelevanttothediscussionathand,andmaydifferlittleifatallfromphonemictranscriptions,buttheymakenotheoreticalclaimthatallthedistinctionstranscribedarenecessarilymeaningfulinthelanguage. PhonetictranscriptionsofthewordinternationalintwoEnglishdialects Forexample,theEnglishwordlittlemaybetranscribedbroadlyas[ˈlɪtəl],approximatelydescribingmanypronunciations.Anarrowertranscriptionmayfocusonindividualordialecticaldetails:[ˈɫɪɾɫ]inGeneralAmerican,[ˈlɪʔo]inCockney,or[ˈɫɪːɫ]inSouthernUSEnglish. Phonemictranscriptions,whichexpresstheconceptualcounterpartsofspokensounds,areusuallyenclosedinslashes(//)andtendtousesimplerletterswithfewdiacritics.ThechoiceofIPAlettersmayreflecttheoreticalclaimsofhowspeakersconceptualizesoundsasphonemesortheymaybemerelyaconveniencefortypesetting.Phonemicapproximationsbetweenslashesdonothaveabsolutesoundvalues.Forinstance,inEnglish,eitherthevowelofpickorthevowelofpeakmaybetranscribedas/i/,sothatpick,peakwouldbetranscribedas/ˈpik,ˈpiːk/oras/ˈpɪk,ˈpik/;andneitherisidenticaltothevoweloftheFrenchpiquewhichwouldalsobetranscribed/pik/.Bycontrast,anarrowphonetictranscriptionofpick,peak,piquecouldbe:[pʰɪk],[pʰiːk],[pikʲ]. Linguists[edit] IPAispopularfortranscriptionbylinguists.SomeAmericanlinguists,however,useamixofIPAwithAmericanistphoneticnotationorusesomenonstandardsymbolsforvariousreasons.[47]Authorswhoemploysuchnonstandarduseareencouragedtoincludeachartorotherexplanationoftheirchoices,whichisgoodpracticeingeneral,aslinguistsdifferintheirunderstandingoftheexactmeaningofIPAsymbolsandcommonconventionschangeovertime. Dictionaries[edit] English[edit] ManyBritishdictionaries,includingtheOxfordEnglishDictionaryandsomelearner'sdictionariessuchastheOxfordAdvancedLearner'sDictionaryandtheCambridgeAdvancedLearner'sDictionary,nowusetheInternationalPhoneticAlphabettorepresentthepronunciationofwords.[48]However,mostAmerican(andsomeBritish)volumesuseoneofavarietyofpronunciationrespellingsystems,intendedtobemorecomfortableforreadersofEnglish.Forexample,therespellingsystemsinmanyAmericandictionaries(suchasMerriam-Webster)use⟨y⟩forIPA[j]and⟨sh⟩forIPA[ʃ],reflectingcommonrepresentationsofthosesoundsinwrittenEnglish,[49]usingonlylettersoftheEnglishRomanalphabetandvariationsofthem.(InIPA,[y]representsthesoundoftheFrench⟨u⟩(asintu),and[sh]representsthepairofsoundsingrasshopper.) Otherlanguages[edit] TheIPAisalsonotuniversalamongdictionariesinlanguagesotherthanEnglish.Monolingualdictionariesoflanguageswithphonemicorthographiesgenerallydonotbotherwithindicatingthepronunciationofmostwords,andtendtouserespellingsystemsforwordswithunexpectedpronunciations.DictionariesproducedinIsraelusetheIPArarelyandsometimesusetheHebrewalphabetfortranscriptionofforeignwords.[50]BilingualdictionariesthattranslatefromforeignlanguagesintoRussianusuallyemploytheIPA,butmonolingualRussiandictionariesoccasionallyusepronunciationrespellingforforeignwords.[51]TheIPAismorecommoninbilingualdictionaries,butthereareexceptionsheretoo.Mass-marketbilingualCzechdictionaries,forinstance,tendtousetheIPAonlyforsoundsnotfoundinCzech.[52] Standardorthographiesandcasevariants[edit] Mainarticle:CasevariantsofIPAletters IPAlettershavebeenincorporatedintothealphabetsofvariouslanguages,notablyviatheAfricaAlphabetinmanysub-SaharanlanguagessuchasHausa,Fula,Akan,Gbelanguages,Mandinglanguages,Lingala,etc.Thishascreatedtheneedforcapitalvariants.Forexample,KabiyèofnorthernTogohasƉɖ,Ŋŋ,Ɣɣ,Ɔɔ,Ɛɛ,Ʋʋ.These,andothers,aresupportedbyUnicode,butappearinLatinrangesotherthantheIPAextensions. IntheIPAitself,however,onlylower-caselettersareused.The1949editionoftheIPAhandbookindicatedthatanasterisk⟨*⟩maybeprefixedtoindicatethatawordisapropername,[53]butthisconventionwasnotincludedinthe1999Handbook,whichnotesinsteadextIPAuseoftheasteriskasaplaceholderforasoundthatdoesnothaveasymbol. Classicalsinging[edit] TheIPAhaswidespreaduseamongclassicalsingersduringpreparationastheyarefrequentlyrequiredtosinginavarietyofforeignlanguages.Theyarealsotaughtbyvocalcoachestoperfectdictionandimprovetonequalityandtuning.[54]OperalibrettosareauthoritativelytranscribedinIPA,suchasNicoCastel'svolumes[55]andTimothyCheek'sbookSinginginCzech.[56]Operasingers'abilitytoreadIPAwasusedbythesiteVisualThesaurus,whichemployedseveraloperasingers"tomakerecordingsforthe150,000wordsandphrasesinVT'slexicaldatabase ...fortheirvocalstamina,attentiontothedetailsofenunciation,andmostofall,knowledgeofIPA".[57] Letters[edit] Seealso:InternationalPhoneticAlphabetchart TheInternationalPhoneticAssociationorganizesthelettersoftheIPAintothreecategories:pulmonicconsonants,non-pulmonicconsonants,andvowels.[58][59] Pulmonicconsonantlettersarearrangedsinglyorinpairsofvoiceless(tenuis)andvoicedsounds,withthesethengroupedincolumnsfromfront(labial)soundsonthelefttoback(glottal)soundsontheright.InofficialpublicationsbytheIPA,twocolumnsareomittedtosavespace,withtheletterslistedamong'othersymbols',[60]andwiththeremainingconsonantsarrangedinrowsfromfullclosure(occlusives:stopsandnasals),tobriefclosure(vibrants:trillsandtaps),topartialclosure(fricatives)andminimalclosure(approximants),againwitharowleftouttosavespace.Inthetablebelow,aslightlydifferentarrangementismade:Allpulmonicconsonantsareincludedinthepulmonic-consonanttable,andthevibrantsandlateralsareseparatedoutsothattherowsreflectthecommonlenitionpathwayofstop→fricative→approximant,aswellasthefactthatseveralletterspulldoubledutyasbothfricativeandapproximant;affricatesmaybecreatedbyjoiningstopsandfricativesfromadjacentcells.Shadedcellsrepresentarticulationsthatarejudgedtobeimpossible. Vowellettersarealsogroupedinpairs—ofunroundedandroundedvowelsounds—withthesepairsalsoarrangedfromfrontonthelefttobackontheright,andfrommaximalclosureattoptominimalclosureatbottom.Novowellettersareomittedfromthechart,thoughinthepastsomeofthemidcentralvowelswerelistedamongthe'othersymbols'. Consonants[edit] Mainarticle:Consonant Pulmonicconsonants[edit] Seealso:IPApulmonicconsonantchartwithaudio Apulmonicconsonantisaconsonantmadebyobstructingtheglottis(thespacebetweenthevocalcords)ororalcavity(themouth)andeithersimultaneouslyorsubsequentlylettingoutairfromthelungs.PulmonicconsonantsmakeupthemajorityofconsonantsintheIPA,aswellasinhumanlanguage.AllconsonantsinEnglishfallintothiscategory.[61] Thepulmonicconsonanttable,whichincludesmostconsonants,isarrangedinrowsthatdesignatemannerofarticulation,meaninghowtheconsonantisproduced,andcolumnsthatdesignateplaceofarticulation,meaningwhereinthevocaltracttheconsonantisproduced.Themainchartincludesonlyconsonantswithasingleplaceofarticulation. Place→ Labial Coronal Dorsal Laryngeal Manner↓ Bi­labial Labio­dental Linguo­labial Dental Alveolar Post­alveolar Retro­flex Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyn­geal/epi­glottal Glottal Nasal m̥ m ɱ n̼ n̥ n ɳ̊ ɳ ɲ̊ ɲ ŋ̊ ŋ ɴ Plosive p b p̪ b̪ t̼ d̼ t d ʈ ɖ c ɟ k ɡ q ɢ ʡ ʔ Sibilantfricative s z ʃ ʒ ʂ ʐ ɕ ʑ Non-sibilantfricative ɸ β f v θ̼ ð̼ θ ð θ̠ ð̠ ɹ̠̊˔ ɹ̠˔ ɻ˔ ç ʝ x ɣ χ ʁ ħ ʕ h ɦ Approximant ʋ ɹ ɻ j ɰ ʔ̞ Tap/flap ⱱ̟ ⱱ ɾ̼ ɾ̥ ɾ ɽ̊ ɽ ɢ̆ ʡ̆ Trill ʙ̥ ʙ r̥ r ɽ̊r̥ ɽr ʀ̥ ʀ ʜ ʢ Lateralfricative ɬ ɮ ɭ̊˔ ɭ˔ ʎ̝̊ ʎ̝ ʟ̝̊ ʟ̝ Lateralapproximant l ɭ ʎ ʟ ʟ̠ Lateraltap/flap ɺ̥ ɺ ɭ̥̆ ɭ̆ ʎ̆ ʟ̆ IPAhelp  audio fullchart template Notes Inrowswheresomelettersappearinpairs(theobstruents),thelettertotherightrepresentsavoicedconsonant(exceptbreathy-voiced[ɦ]).[62]Intheotherrows(thesonorants),thesingleletterrepresentsavoicedconsonant. WhileIPAprovidesasingleletterforthecoronalplacesofarticulation(forallconsonantsbutfricatives),thesedonotalwayshavetobeusedexactly.Whendealingwithaparticularlanguage,thelettersmaybetreatedasspecificallydental,alveolar,orpost-alveolar,asappropriateforthatlanguage,withoutdiacritics. Shadedareasindicatearticulationsjudgedtobeimpossible. Theletters[ʁ,ʕ,ʢ]representeithervoicedfricativesorapproximants. Inmanylanguages,suchasEnglish,[h]and[ɦ]arenotactuallyglottal,fricatives,orapproximants.Rather,theyarebarephonation.[63] Itisprimarilytheshapeofthetongueratherthanitspositionthatdistinguishesthefricatives[ʃʒ],[ɕʑ],and[ʂʐ]. [ʜ,ʢ]aredefinedasepiglottalfricativesunderthe"Othersymbols"sectionintheofficialIPAchart,buttheymaybetreatedastrillsatthesameplaceofarticulationas[ħ,ʕ]becausetrillingofthearyepiglotticfoldstypicallyco-occurs.[64] Somelistedphonesarenotknowntoexistasphonemesinanylanguage. Non-pulmonicconsonants[edit] Non-pulmonicconsonantsaresoundswhoseairflowisnotdependentonthelungs.Theseincludeclicks(foundintheKhoisanlanguagesandsomeneighboringBantulanguagesofAfrica),implosives(foundinlanguagessuchasSindhi,Hausa,SwahiliandVietnamese),andejectives(foundinmanyAmerindianandCaucasianlanguages). BL LD D A PA RF P V U EG Ejective Stop pʼ tʼ ʈʼ cʼ kʼ qʼ ʡʼ Fricative ɸʼ fʼ θʼ sʼ ʃʼ ʂʼ ɕʼ xʼ χʼ Lateralfricative ɬʼ Click(top:velar;bottom:uvular) Tenuis kʘqʘ kǀqǀ kǃqǃ kǂqǂ Voiced ɡʘɢʘ ɡǀɢǀ ɡǃɢǃ ɡǂɢǂ Nasal ŋʘɴʘ ŋǀɴǀ ŋǃɴǃ ŋǂɴǂ Tenuislateral kǁqǁ Voicedlateral ɡǁɢǁ Nasallateral ŋǁɴǁ Implosive Voiced ɓ ɗ ᶑ ʄ ɠ ʛ Voiceless ɓ̥ ɗ̥ ᶑ̊ ʄ̊ ɠ̊ ʛ̥ IPAhelp fullchart template Notes Clickshavetraditionallybeendescribedasconsistingofaforwardplaceofarticulation,commonlycalledtheclick'type'orhistoricallythe'influx',andarearplaceofarticulation,whichwhencombinedwiththevoicing,aspiration,nasalization,affrication,ejection,timingetc.oftheclickiscommonlycalledtheclick'accompaniment'orhistoricallythe'efflux'.TheIPAclicklettersindicateonlytheclicktype(forwardarticulationandrelease).Thereforeallclicksrequiretwolettersforpropernotation:⟨k͡ǂ,ɡ͡ǂ,ŋ͡ǂ,q͡ǂ,ɢ͡ǂ,ɴ͡ǂ⟩etc.,orwiththeorderreversedifboththeforwardandrearreleasesareaudible.Theletterforthereararticulationisfrequentlyomitted,inwhichcasea⟨k⟩mayusuallybeassumed.However,someresearchersdisputetheideathatclicksshouldbeanalyzedasdoublyarticulated,asthetraditionaltranscriptionimplies,andanalyzetherearocclusionassolelyapartoftheairstreammechanism.[65]Intranscriptionsofsuchapproaches,theclickletterrepresentsbothplacesofarticulation,withthedifferentlettersrepresentingthedifferentclicktypes,anddiacriticsareusedfortheelementsoftheaccompaniment:⟨ǂ,ǂ̬,ǂ̃⟩etc. Lettersforthevoicelessimplosives⟨ƥ,ƭ,ƈ,ƙ,ʠ⟩arenolongersupportedbytheIPA,thoughtheyremaininUnicode.Instead,theIPAtypicallyusesthevoicedequivalentwithavoicelessdiacritic:⟨ɓ̥,ʛ̥⟩,etc.. Theletterfortheretrofleximplosive,⟨ᶑ⟩,isnot"explicitlyIPAapproved"(Handbook,p. 166),buthastheexpectedformifsuchasymbolweretobeapproved. Theejectivediacriticisplacedattheright-handmarginoftheconsonant,ratherthanimmediatelyaftertheletterforthestop:⟨t͜ʃʼ⟩,⟨kʷʼ⟩.Inimprecisetranscription,itoftenstandsinforasuperscriptglottalstopinglottalizedbutpulmonicsonorants,suchas[mˀ],[lˀ],[wˀ],[aˀ](alsotranscribableascreaky[m̰],[l̰],[w̰],[a̰]). Affricates[edit] Affricatesandco-articulatedstopsarerepresentedbytwolettersjoinedbyatiebar,eitheraboveorbelowtheletters.[66]Affricatesareoptionallyrepresentedbyligatures(e.g.ʦ,ʣ,ʧ,ʤ,ʨ,ʥ,ꭧ,ꭦ),thoughthisisnolongerofficialIPAusage[1]becauseagreatnumberofligatureswouldberequiredtorepresentallaffricatesthisway.Alternatively,asuperscriptnotationforaconsonantreleaseissometimesusedtotranscribeaffricates,forexampletˢfort͡s,parallelingkˣ~k͡x.Thelettersforthepalatalplosivescandɟareoftenusedasaconveniencefort͡ʃandd͡ʒorsimilaraffricates,eveninofficialIPApublications,sotheymustbeinterpretedwithcare. Pulmonic Sibilant ts dz t̠ʃ d̠ʒ ʈʂ ɖʐ tɕ dʑ Non-sibilant pɸ bβ p̪f b̪v t̪θ d̪ð tɹ̝̊ dɹ̝ t̠ɹ̠̊˔ d̠ɹ̠˔ cç ɟʝ kx ɡɣ qχ ɢʁ ʡʢ ʔh Lateral tɬ dɮ ʈɭ̊˔ ɖɭ˔ cʎ̝̊ ɟʎ̝ kʟ̝̊ ɡʟ̝ Ejective Central tsʼ t̠ʃʼ ʈʂʼ kxʼ qχʼ Lateral tɬʼ cʎ̝̊ʼ kʟ̝̊ʼ IPAhelp fullchart template Co-articulatedconsonants[edit] Co-articulatedconsonantsaresoundsthatinvolvetwosimultaneousplacesofarticulation(arepronouncedusingtwopartsofthevocaltract).InEnglish,the[w]in"went"isacoarticulatedconsonant,beingpronouncedbyroundingthelipsandraisingthebackofthetongue.Similarsoundsare[ʍ]and[ɥ].Insomelanguages,plosivescanbedouble-articulated,forexampleinthenameofLaurentGbagbo. Nasal n͡m Labial–alveolar ŋ͡m Labial–velar Plosive t͡pd͡b Labial–alveolar k͡pɡ͡b Labial–velar q͡ʡ Uvular–epiglottal Fricative/approximant ɥ̊ɥ Labial–palatal ʍw Labial–velar ɧ Sj-sound(variable) Lateralapproximant ɫ Velarizedalveolar IPAhelp fullchart template Notes [ɧ],theSwedishsj-sound,isdescribedbytheIPAasa"simultaneous[ʃ]and[x]",butitisunlikelysuchasimultaneousfricativeactuallyexistsinanylanguage.[67] Multipletiebarscanbeused:⟨a͡b͡c⟩or⟨a͜b͜c⟩.Forinstance,ifaprenasalizedstopistranscribed⟨m͡b⟩,andadoublyarticulatedstop⟨ɡ͡b⟩,thenaprenasalizeddoublyarticulatedstopwouldbe⟨ŋ͡m͡ɡ͡b⟩ Ifadiacriticneedstobeplacedonorunderatiebar,thecombininggraphemejoiner(U+034F)needstobeused,asin[b͜͏̰də̀bdɷ̀]'chewed'(Margi).Fontsupportisspotty,however. Vowels[edit] Mainarticle:Vowel Seealso:IPAvowelchartwithaudio Tonguepositionsofcardinalfrontvowels,withhighestpointindicated.Thepositionofthehighestpointisusedtodeterminevowelheightandbackness. X-rayphotosshowthesounds[i,u,a,ɑ]. TheIPAdefinesavowelasasoundwhichoccursatasyllablecenter.[68]BelowisachartdepictingthevowelsoftheIPA.TheIPAmapsthevowelsaccordingtothepositionofthetongue. Front Central Back Close i y ɨ ʉ ɯ u Near-close ɪ ʏ ʊ Close-mid e ø ɘ ɵ ɤ o Mid e̞ ø̞ ə ɤ̞ o̞ Open-mid ɛ œ ɜ ɞ ʌ ɔ Near-open æ ɐ Open a ɶ ä ɑ ɒ IPAhelp  audio fullchart template Theverticalaxisofthechartismappedbyvowelheight.Vowelspronouncedwiththetongueloweredareatthebottom,andvowelspronouncedwiththetongueraisedareatthetop.Forexample,[ɑ](thefirstvowelinfather)isatthebottombecausethetongueisloweredinthisposition.[i](thevowelin"meet")isatthetopbecausethesoundissaidwiththetongueraisedtotheroofofthemouth. Inasimilarfashion,thehorizontalaxisofthechartisdeterminedbyvowelbackness.Vowelswiththetonguemovedtowardsthefrontofthemouth(suchas[ɛ],thevowelin"met")aretotheleftinthechart,whilethoseinwhichitismovedtotheback(suchas[ʌ],thevowelin"but")areplacedtotherightinthechart. Inplaceswherevowelsarepaired,therightrepresentsaroundedvowel(inwhichthelipsarerounded)whiletheleftisitsunroundedcounterpart. Diphthongs[edit] Diphthongsaretypicallyspecifiedwithanon-syllabicdiacritic,asin⟨uɪ̯⟩or⟨u̯ɪ⟩,orwithasuperscriptfortheon-oroff-glide,asin⟨uᶦ⟩or⟨ᵘɪ⟩.Sometimesatiebarisused:⟨u͡ɪ⟩,especiallyifitisdifficulttotellifthediphthongischaracterizedbyanon-glide,anoff-glideorisvariable. Notes ⟨a⟩officiallyrepresentsafrontvowel,butthereislittleifanydistinctionbetweenfrontandcentralopenvowels(seeVowel§ Acoustics),and⟨a⟩isfrequentlyusedforanopencentralvowel.[47]Ifdisambiguationisrequired,theretractiondiacriticorthecentralizeddiacriticmaybeaddedtoindicateanopencentralvowel,asin⟨a̠⟩or⟨ä⟩. Diacriticsandprosodicnotation[edit] Diacriticsareusedforphoneticdetail.TheyareaddedtoIPAletterstoindicateamodificationorspecificationofthatletter'snormalpronunciation.[69] Bybeingmadesuperscript,anyIPAlettermayfunctionasadiacritic,conferringelementsofitsarticulationtothebaseletter.ThosesuperscriptletterslistedbelowarespecificallyprovidedforbytheIPAHandbook;otherusescanbeillustratedwith⟨tˢ⟩([t]withfricativerelease),⟨ᵗs⟩([s]withaffricateonset),⟨ⁿd⟩(prenasalized[d]),⟨bʱ⟩([b]withbreathyvoice),⟨mˀ⟩(glottalized[m]),⟨sᶴ⟩([s]withaflavorof[ʃ]),⟨oᶷ⟩([o]withdiphthongization),⟨ɯᵝ⟩(compressed[ɯ]).Superscriptdiacriticsplacedafteraletterareambiguousbetweensimultaneousmodificationofthesoundandphoneticdetailattheendofthesound.Forexample,labialized⟨kʷ⟩maymeaneithersimultaneous[k]and[w]orelse[k]withalabializedrelease.Superscriptdiacriticsplacedbeforealetter,ontheotherhand,normallyindicateamodificationoftheonsetofthesound(⟨mˀ⟩glottalized[m],⟨ˀm⟩[m]withaglottalonset).(See§ SuperscriptIPA.) Syllabicitydiacritics ◌̩ ɹ̩n̩ Syllabic ◌̯ ɪ̯ʊ̯ Non-syllabic ◌̍ ɻ̍ŋ̍ ◌̑ y̑ Consonant-releasediacritics ◌ʰ tʰ Aspirated[a] ◌̚ p̚ Noaudiblerelease ◌ⁿ dⁿ Nasalrelease ◌ˡ dˡ Lateralrelease ◌ᶿ tᶿ Voicelessdentalfricativerelease ◌ˣ tˣ Voicelessvelarfricativerelease ◌ᵊ dᵊ Midcentralvowelrelease Phonationdiacritics ◌̥ n̥d̥ Voiceless ◌̬ s̬t̬ Voiced ◌̊ ɻ̊ŋ̊ ◌̤ b̤a̤ Breathyvoiced[a] ◌̰ b̰a̰ Creakyvoiced Articulationdiacritics ◌̪ t̪d̪ Dental ◌̼ t̼d̼ Linguolabial ◌͆ ɮ͆ ◌̺ t̺d̺ Apical ◌̻ t̻d̻ Laminal ◌̟ u̟t̟ Advanced(fronted) ◌̠ i̠t̠ Retracted(backed) ◌᫈ ɡ᫈ ◌̄ q̄[b] ◌̈ ëä Centralized ◌̽ e̽ɯ̽ Mid-centralized ◌̝ e̝r̝ Raised([r̝],[ɭ˔]arefricatives) ◌̞ e̞β̞ Lowered([β̞],[ɣ˕]areapproximants) ◌˔ ɭ˔ ◌˕ y˕ɣ˕ Co-articulationdiacritics ◌̹ ɔ̹x̹ Morerounded(over-rounding) ◌̜ ɔ̜xʷ̜ Lessrounded(under-rounding)[c] ◌͗ y͗χ͗ ◌͑ y͑χ͑ʷ ◌ʷ tʷdʷ Labialized ◌ʲ tʲdʲ Palatalized ◌ˠ tˠdˠ Velarized ◌̴ ɫᵶ Velarizedorpharyngealized ◌ˤ tˤaˤ Pharyngealized ◌̘ e̘o̘ Advancedtongueroot ◌̙ e̙o̙ Retractedtongueroot ◌꭪ y꭪ ◌꭫ y꭫ ◌̃ ẽz̃ Nasalized ◌˞ ɚɝ Rhoticity Notes ^aWithaspiratedvoicedconsonants,theaspirationisusuallyalsovoiced(voicedaspirated–butseevoicedconsonantswithvoicelessaspiration).Manylinguistspreferoneofthediacriticsdedicatedtobreathyvoiceoversimpleaspiration,suchas⟨b̤⟩.Somelinguistsrestrictthatdiacritictosonorants,suchasbreathy-voice⟨m̤⟩,andtranscribevoiced-aspiratedobstruentsase.g.⟨bʱ⟩. ^bCaremustbetakenthatasuperscriptretractionsignisnotmistakenformidtone. ^cThesearerelativetothecardinalvalueoftheletter.Theycanalsoapplytounroundedvowels:[ɛ̜]ismorespread(lessrounded)thancardinal[ɛ],and[ɯ̹]islessspreadthancardinal[ɯ].[70]Since⟨xʷ⟩canmeanthatthe[x]islabialized(rounded)throughoutitsarticulation,and⟨x̜⟩makesnosense([x]isalreadycompletelyunrounded),⟨x̜ʷ⟩canonlymeanaless-labialized/rounded[xʷ].However,readersmightmistake⟨x̜ʷ⟩for"[x̜]"withalabializedoff-glide,ormightwonderifthetwodiacriticscanceleachotherout.Placingthe'lessrounded'diacriticunderthelabializationdiacritic,⟨xʷ̜⟩,makesitclearthatitisthelabializationthatis'lessrounded'thanitscardinalIPAvalue. Subdiacritics(diacriticsnormallyplacedbelowaletter)maybemovedabovealettertoavoidconflictwithadescender,asinvoiceless⟨ŋ̊⟩.[69]Theraisingandloweringdiacriticshaveoptionalspacingforms⟨˔⟩,⟨˕⟩thatavoiddescenders. Thestateoftheglottiscanbefinelytranscribedwithdiacritics.Aseriesofalveolarplosivesrangingfromopen-glottistoclosed-glottisphonationis: Phonationscale Openglottis [t] voiceless [d̤] breathyvoice,alsocalledmurmured [d̥] slackvoice Sweetspot [d] modalvoice [d̬] stiffvoice [d̰] creakyvoice Closedglottis [ʔ͡t] glottalclosure AdditionaldiacriticsareprovidedbytheExtensionstotheIPAforspeechpathology. Suprasegmentals[edit] Thesesymbolsdescribethefeaturesofalanguageabovethelevelofindividualconsonantsandvowels,thatis,atthelevelofsyllable,wordorphrase.Theseincludeprosody,pitch,length,stress,intensity,toneandgeminationofthesoundsofalanguage,aswellastherhythmandintonationofspeech.[71]Variousligaturesofpitch/tonelettersanddiacriticsareprovidedforbytheKielconventionandusedintheIPAHandbookdespitenotbeingfoundinthesummaryoftheIPAalphabetfoundontheone-pagechart. Undercapitallettersbelowwewillseehowacarrierlettermaybeusedtoindicatesuprasegmentalfeaturessuchaslabializationornasalization.Someauthorsomitthecarrierletter,fore.g.suffixed[kʰuˣt̪s̟]ʷorprefixed[ʷkʰuˣt̪s̟],[72]orplaceaspacingdiacriticsuchas⟨˔⟩atthebeginningofawordtoindicatethatthequalityappliestotheentireword.[73] Length,stress,andrhythm ˈke Primarystress(appearsbeforestressedsyllable) ˌke Secondarystress(appearsbeforestressedsyllable) eːkː Long(longvowelorgeminateconsonant) eˑ Half-long ə̆ɢ̆ Extra-short ek.steeks.te Syllablebreak(internalboundary) es‿e Linking(lackofaboundary;aphonologicalword)[74] Intonation | Minororfootbreak ‖ Majororintonationbreak ↗︎[75] Globalrise ↘︎[75] Globalfall PitchdiacriticsandChaotoneletters[76] ŋ̋e̋ Extrahigh ˥e,꜒e,e˥,e꜒,ˉe High ꜛke Upstep ŋ́é High ˦e,꜓e,e˦,e꜓ Half-high ŋ̌ě˩˥ee˩˥ˊe Rising(lowtohighorgeneric) ŋ̄ē Mid ˧e,꜔e,e˧,e꜔,˗e Mid ŋ̀è Low ˨e,꜕e,e˨,e꜕ Half-low ŋ̂ê˥˩ee˥˩ˋe Falling(hightoloworgeneric) ŋ̏ȅ Extralow ˩e,꜖e,e˩,e꜖,ˍe Low ꜜke Downstep Stress[edit] Officially,thestressmarks⟨ˈˌ⟩appearbeforethestressedsyllable,andthusmarkthesyllableboundaryaswellasstress(thoughthesyllableboundarymaystillbeexplicitlymarkedwithaperiod).[77]Occasionallythestressmarkisplacedimmediatelybeforethenucleusofthesyllable,afteranyconsonantalonset.[78]Insuchtranscriptions,thestressmarkdoesnotmarkasyllableboundary.Theprimarystressmarkmaybedoubled⟨ˈˈ⟩forextrastress(suchasprosodicstress).Thesecondarystressmarkissometimesseendoubled⟨ˌˌ⟩forextra-weakstress,butthisconventionhasnotbeenadoptedbytheIPA.[77] Somedictionariesplacebothstressmarksbeforeasyllable,⟨¦⟩,toindicatethatpronunciationswitheitherprimaryorsecondarystressareheard,thoughthisisnotIPAusage.[79] Boundarymarkers[edit] Therearethreeboundarymarkers:⟨.⟩forasyllablebreak,⟨|⟩foraminorprosodicbreakand⟨‖⟩foramajorprosodicbreak.Thetags'minor'and'major'areintentionallyambiguous.Dependingonneed,'minor'mayvaryfromafootbreaktoabreakinlist-intonationtoacontinuing–prosodic-unitboundary(equivalenttoacomma),andwhile'major'isoftenanyintonationbreak,itmayberestrictedtoafinal–prosodic-unitboundary(equivalenttoaperiod).The'major'symbolmayalsobedoubled,⟨‖‖⟩,forastrongerbreak.[note8] AlthoughnotpartoftheIPA,thefollowingadditionalboundarymarkersareoftenusedinconjunctionwiththeIPA:⟨μ⟩foramoraormoraboundary,⟨σ⟩forasyllableorsyllableboundary,⟨+⟩foramorphemeboundary,⟨#⟩forawordboundary(maybedoubled,⟨##⟩,fore.g.abreath-groupboundary),[81]⟨$⟩foraphraseorintermediateboundaryand⟨%⟩foraprosodicboundary.Forexample,C#isaword-finalconsonant,%Vapost-pausavowel,andT%anIU-finaltone(edgetone). Pitchandtone[edit] Seealso:toneletter ⟨ꜛꜜ⟩aredefinedintheHandbookasupstepanddownstep,conceptsfromtonallanguages.However,the'upstep'couldalsobeusedforpitchreset,andtheIPAHandbookillustrationforPortugueseusesitforprosodyinanon-tonallanguage. Phoneticpitchandphonemictonemaybeindicatedbyeitherdiacriticsplacedoverthenucleusofthesyllable(e.g.high-pitch⟨é⟩)orbyChaotonelettersplacedeitherbeforeorafterthewordorsyllable.Therearethreegraphicvariantsofthetoneletters:withorwithoutastave,andfacingleftorfacingrightfromthestave.Thestavewasintroducedwiththe1989KielConvention,aswastheoptionofplacingastavedletterafterthewordorsyllable,whileretainingtheolderconventions.Therearethereforesixwaystotranscribepitch/toneintheIPA:i.e.⟨é⟩,⟨˦e⟩,⟨e˦⟩,⟨꜓e⟩,⟨e꜓⟩and⟨¯e⟩forahighpitch/tone.[77][82][83]Ofthetoneletters,onlyleft-facingstavedlettersandafewrepresentativecombinationsareshowninthesummaryontheChart,andinpracticeitiscurrentlymorecommonfortoneletterstooccurafterthesyllable/wordthanbefore,asintheChaotradition.Placementbeforethewordisacarry-overfromthepre-KielIPAconvention,asisstillthecaseforthestressandupstep/downstepmarks.TheIPAendorsestheChaotraditionofusingtheleft-facingtoneletters,⟨˥˦˧˨˩⟩,forunderlyingtone,andtheright-facingletters,⟨꜒꜓꜔꜕꜖⟩,forsurfacetone,asoccursintonesandhi,andfortheintonationofnon-tonallanguages.[84]InthePortugueseillustrationinthe1999Handbook,tonelettersareplacedbeforeawordorsyllabletoindicateprosodicpitch(equivalentto[↗︎]globalriseand[↘︎]globalfall,butallowingmoreprecision),andintheCantoneseillustrationtheyareplacedafteraword/syllabletoindicatelexicaltone.Theoreticallythereforeprosodicpitchandlexicaltonecouldbesimultaneouslytranscribedinasingletext,thoughthisisnotaformalizeddistinction. Risingandfallingpitch,asincontourtones,areindicatedbycombiningthepitchdiacriticsandlettersinthetable,suchasgraveplusacuteforrising[ě]andacuteplusgraveforfalling[ê].Onlysixcombinationsoftwodiacriticsaresupported,andonlyacrossthreelevels(high,mid,low),despitethediacriticssupportingfivelevelsofpitchinisolation.Thefourotherexplicitlyapprovedrisingandfallingdiacriticcombinationsarehigh/midrising[e᷄],lowrising[e᷅],highfalling[e᷇],andlow/midfalling[e᷆].[85] TheChaotoneletters,ontheotherhand,maybecombinedinanypattern,andarethereforeusedformorecomplexcontoursandfinerdistinctionsthanthediacriticsallow,suchasmid-rising[e˨˦],extra-highfalling[e˥˦],etc.Thereare20suchpossibilities.However,inChao'soriginalproposal,whichwasadoptedbytheIPAin1989,hestipulatedthatthehalf-highandhalf-lowletters⟨˦˨⟩maybecombinedwitheachother,butnotwiththeotherthreetoneletters,soasnottocreatespuriouslyprecisedistinctions.Withthisrestriction,thereare8possibilities.[86] Theoldstavelesstoneletterstendtobemorerestrictedthanthestavedletters,thoughnotasrestrictedasthediacritics.Officially,theysupportasmanydistinctionsasthestavedletters,[87]buttypicallyonlythreepitchlevelsaredistinguished.Unicodesupportsdefaultorhigh-pitch⟨ˉˊˋˆˇ˜˙⟩andlow-pitch⟨ˍˏˎꞈˬ˷⟩.Onlyafewmid-pitchtonesaresupported(suchas⟨˗˴⟩),andthenonlyaccidentally. Althoughtonediacriticsandtonelettersarepresentedasequivalentonthechart,"thiswasdoneonlytosimplifythelayoutofthechart.Thetwosetsofsymbolsarenotcomparableinthisway."[88]Usingdiacritics,ahightoneis⟨é⟩andalowtoneis⟨è⟩;intoneletters,theseare⟨e˥⟩and⟨e˩⟩.Onecandoublethediacriticsforextra-high⟨e̋⟩andextra-low⟨ȅ⟩;thereisnoparalleltothisusingtoneletters.Instead,tonelettershavemid-high⟨e˦⟩andmid-low⟨e˨⟩;again,thereisnoequivalentamongthediacritics. Thecorrespondencebreaksdownevenfurtheroncetheystartcombining.Formorecomplextones,onemaycombinethreeorfourtonediacriticsinanypermutation,[77]thoughinpracticeonlygenericpeaking(rising-falling)e᷈anddipping(falling-rising)e᷉combinationsareused.Chaotonelettersarerequiredforfinerdetail(e˧˥˧,e˩˨˩,e˦˩˧,e˨˩˦,etc.).Althoughonly10peakinganddippingtoneswereproposedinChao'soriginal,limitedsetoftoneletters,phoneticiansoftenmakefinerdistinctions,andindeedanexampleisfoundontheIPAChart.[89]Thesystemallowsthetranscriptionof112peakinganddippingpitchcontours,includingtonesthatarelevelforpartoftheirlength. Original(restricted)setofChaotoneletters[90] Register Level[91] Rising Falling Peaking Dipping e˩ e˩˩ e˩˧ e˧˩ e˩˧˩ e˧˩˧ e˨ e˨˨ e˨˦ e˦˨ e˨˦˨ e˦˨˦ e˧ e˧˧ e˧˥ e˥˧ e˧˥˧ e˥˧˥ e˦ e˦˦ e˧˥˩ e˧˩˥ e˥ e˥˥ e˩˥ e˥˩ e˩˥˧ e˥˩˧ Morecomplexcontoursarepossible.Chaogaveanexampleof[꜔꜒꜖꜔](mid-high-low-mid)fromEnglishprosody.[86] Chaotonelettersgenerallyappearaftereachsyllable,foralanguagewithsyllabletone(⟨a˧vɔ˥˩⟩),orafterthephonologicalword,foralanguagewithwordtone(⟨avɔ˧˥˩⟩).TheIPAgivestheoptionofplacingthetonelettersbeforethewordorsyllable(⟨˧a˥˩vɔ⟩,⟨˧˥˩avɔ⟩),butthisisrareforlexicaltone.(Andindeedreversedtonelettersmaybeusedtoclarifythattheyapplytothefollowingratherthantotheprecedingsyllable:⟨꜔a꜒꜖vɔ⟩,⟨꜔꜒꜖avɔ⟩.)ThestavelesslettersarenotdirectlysupportedbyUnicode,butsomefontsallowthestaveinChaotoneletterstobesuppressed. Comparativedegree[edit] IPAdiacriticsmaybedoubledtoindicateanextradegreeofthefeatureindicated.[92]Thisisaproductiveprocess,butapartfromextra-highandextra-lowtones⟨ə̋,ə̏⟩beingmarkedbydoubledhigh-andlow-tonediacritics,andthemajorprosodicbreak⟨‖⟩beingmarkedasadoubleminorbreak⟨|⟩,itisnotspecificallyregulatedbytheIPA.(Notethattranscriptionmarksaresimilar:doubleslashesindicateextra(morpho)-phonemic,doublesquarebracketsespeciallyprecise,anddoubleparenthesesespeciallyunintelligible.) Forexample,thestressmarkmaybedoubledtoindicateanextradegreeofstress,suchasprosodicstressinEnglish.[93]AnexampleinFrench,withasinglestressmarkfornormalprosodicstressattheendofeachprosodicunit(markedasaminorprosodicbreak),andadoublestressmarkforcontrastive/emphaticstress:[ˈˈɑ̃ːˈtre|məˈsjø‖ˈˈvwalamaˈdam‖]Entrezmonsieur,voilàmadame.[94]Similarly,adoubledsecondarystressmark⟨ˌˌ⟩iscommonlyusedfortertiary(extra-light)stress.[95]Inasimilarvein,theeffectivelyobsolete(thoughstillofficial)stavelesstoneletterswereoncedoubledforanemphaticrisingintonation⟨˶⟩andanemphaticfallingintonation⟨˵⟩.[96] Lengthiscommonlyextendedbyrepeatingthelengthmark,asinEnglishshhh![ʃːːː],orfor"overlong"segmentsinEstonian: vere/vere/'blood[gen.sg.]',veere/veːre/'edge[gen.sg.]',veere/veːːre/'roll[imp.2ndsg.]' lina/linɑ/'sheet',linna/linːɑ/'town[gen.sg.]',linna/linːːɑ/'town[ine.sg.]' (Normallyadditionaldegreesoflengtharehandledbytheextra-shortorhalf-longdiacritic,butthefirsttwowordsineachoftheEstonianexamplesareanalyzedassimplyshortandlong,requiringadifferentremedyforthefinalwords.) Occasionallyotherdiacriticsaredoubled: RhoticityinBadaga/be/"mouth",/be˞/"bangle",and/be˞˞/"crop".[97] Mildandstrongaspirations,[kʰ],[kʰʰ].[98] Nasalization,asinPalantlaChinanteclightlynasalized/ẽ/vsheavilynasalized/e͌/,[99]thoughinextIPAthelatterindicatesvelopharyngealfrication. Weakvsstrongejectives,[kʼ],[kˮ].[100] Especiallylowered,e.g.[t̞̞](or[t̞˕],iftheformersymboldoesnotdisplayproperly)for/t/asaweakfricativeinsomepronunciationsofregister.[101] Especiallyretracted,e.g.[ø̠̠]or[s̠̠],[102][92][103]thoughsomecaremightbeneededtodistinguishthisfromindicationsofalveolaroralveolarizedarticulationinextIPA,e.g.[s͇]. Thetranscriptionofstridentandharshvoiceasextra-creaky/a᷽/maybemotivatedbythesimilaritiesofthesephonations. Ambiguouscharacters[edit] AnumberofIPAcharactersarenotconsistentlyusedfortheirofficialvalues.Adistinctionbetweenvoicedfricativesandapproximantsisonlypartiallyimplemented,forexample.Evenwiththerelativelyrecentadditionofthepalatalfricative⟨ʝ⟩andthevelarapproximant⟨ɰ⟩tothealphabet,otherletters,thoughdefinedasfricatives,areoftenambiguousbetweenfricativeandapproximant.Forforwardplaces,⟨β⟩and⟨ð⟩cangenerallybeassumedtobefricativesunlesstheycarryaloweringdiacritic.Rearward,however,⟨ʁ⟩and⟨ʕ⟩areperhapsmorecommonlyintendedtobeapproximantsevenwithoutaloweringdiacritic.⟨h⟩and⟨ɦ⟩aresimilarlyeitherfricativesorapproximants,dependingonthelanguage,orevenglottal"transitions",withoutthatoftenbeingspecifiedinthetranscription. Anothercommonambiguityisamongthepalatalconsonants.⟨c⟩and⟨ɟ⟩arenotuncommonlyusedasatypographicconvenienceforaffricates,typicallysomethinglike[t͜ʃ]and[d͜ʒ],while⟨ɲ⟩and⟨ʎ⟩arecommonlyusedforpalatalizedalveolar[n̠ʲ]and[l̠ʲ].Tosomeextentthismaybeaneffectofanalysis,butitisoftencommonforpeopletomatchupavailableletterstothesoundsofalanguage,withoutoverlyworryingwhethertheyarephoneticallyaccurate. Ithasbeenarguedthatthelower-pharyngeal(epiglottal)fricatives⟨ʜ⟩and⟨ʢ⟩arebettercharacterizedastrills,ratherthanasfricativesthathaveincidentaltrilling.[104]Thishastheadvantageofmergingtheupper-pharyngealfricatives[ħ,ʕ]togetherwiththeepiglottalplosive[ʡ]andtrills[ʜʢ]intoasinglepharyngealcolumnintheconsonantchart.However,inShilhaBerbertheepiglottalfricativesarenottrilled.[105][106]Althoughtheymightbetranscribed⟨ħ̠ʢ̠⟩toindicatethis,thefarmorecommontranscriptionis⟨ʜʢ⟩,whichisthereforeambiguousbetweenlanguages. Amongvowels,⟨a⟩isofficiallyafrontvowel,butismorecommonlytreatedasacentralvowel.Thedifference,totheextentitisevenpossible,isnotphonemicinanylanguage. Threelettersarenotneeded,butareretainedduetoinertiaandwouldbehardtojustifytodaybythestandardsofthemodernIPA.⟨ʍ⟩appearsbecauseitisfoundinEnglish;officiallyitisafricative,withterminologydatingtothedaysbefore'fricative'and'approximant'weredistinguished.Basedonhowallotherfricativesandapproximantsaretranscribed,onewouldexpecteither⟨xʷ⟩forafricative(nothowit'sactuallyused)or⟨w̥⟩foranapproximant.Indeed,outsideofEnglishtranscription,thatiswhatismorecommonlyfoundintheliterature.⟨ɱ⟩isanotherhistoricremnant.Itisonlydistinctinasinglelanguage,afactthatwasdiscoveredafteritwasstandardizedintheIPA.AnumberofconsonantswithoutdedicatedIPAlettersarefoundinmanymorelanguagesthanthat;⟨ɱ⟩isretainedbecauseofitshistoricaluseforEuropeanlanguages,whereitcouldeasilybenormalizedto⟨m̪⟩.Therehavebeenseveralvotestoretire⟨ɱ⟩fromtheIPA,butsofartheyhavefailed.Finally,⟨ɧ⟩isofficiallyasimultaneouspostalveolarandvelarfricative,arealizationthatdoesn'tappeartoexistinanylanguage.ItisretainedbecauseitisconvenientforthetranscriptionofSwedish,whereitisusedforaconsonantthathasvariousrealizationsindifferentdialects.Thatis,itisn'tactuallyaphoneticcharacteratall,butaphonemicone,whichisofficiallybeyondthepurviewoftheIPAalphabet. Forallphoneticnotation,itisgoodpracticeforanauthortospecifyexactlywhattheymeanbythesymbolsthattheyuse. SuperscriptIPA[edit] SuperscriptIPAlettersmaybeusedtoindicatesecondaryarticulation,releasesandothertransitions,shadesofsound,epentheticandincompletelyarticulatedsounds.In2020,theInternationalPhoneticAssociationendorsedtheencodingofsuperscriptIPAlettersinaproposaltotheUnicodeCommissionforbroadercoverageoftheIPAalphabet.TheproposalcoveredallIPAletters(apartfromthetoneletters)thatwerenotyetsupported,includingtheimplicitretroflexletters⟨ꞎ𝼅𝼈ᶑ𝼊⟩,aswellasthetwolengthmarks⟨ːˑ⟩andold-styleaffricateligatures.[46][107]AseparaterequestbytheInternationalClinicalPhoneticsandLinguisticsAssociationforanexpansionofextIPAcoverageendorsedsuperscriptvariantsofallextIPAfricativeletters,specificallyforthefricativereleaseofconsonants.[108]Unicodeplacedthenewsuperscript("modifier")lettersinanewLatinExtended-Fblock. TheUnicodecharactersforsuperscript(modifier)IPAandextIPAlettersareasfollows: IPAandextIPAconsonants,alongwithsuperscriptvariantsandtheirUnicodecodepoints Bi­labial Labio­dental Dental Alveolar Post­alveolar Retro­flex Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyn­geal Glottal Nasal m ᵐ1D50 ɱ ᶬ1DAC n ⁿ207F ɳ ᶯ1DAF ɲ ᶮ1DAE ŋ ᵑ1D51 ɴ ᶰ1DB0 Plosive p ᵖ1D56 b ᵇ1D47 t ᵗ1D57 d ᵈ1D48 ʈ𐞯107AF ɖ𐞋1078B c ᶜ1D9C ɟ ᶡ1DA1 k ᵏ1D4F ɡ ᶢ1DA2[note9] q𐞥107A5 ɢ 𐞒10792 ʡ𐞳107B3 ʔˀ2C0 Affricate ʦ 𐞬107AC ʣ 𐞇10787 ʧ 𐞮107AE(ʨ𐞫)107AB ʤ 𐞊1078A(ʥ𐞉)10789 ꭧ 𐞭107AD ꭦ 𐞈10788 Fricative ɸ ᶲ1DB2 β ᵝ1D5D f ᶠ1DA0 v ᵛ1D5B θ ᶿ1DBF ð ᶞ1D9E s ˢ2E2 z ᶻ1DBB ʃ ᶴ1DB4(ɕᶝ)1D9D ʒ ᶾ1DBE(ʑᶽ)1DBD ʂ ᶳ1DB3 ʐ ᶼ1DBC ç ᶜ̧[note10] ʝ ᶨ1DA8 x ˣ2E3(ɧ 𐞗)10797 ɣ ˠ2E0 χ ᵡ1D61 ʁ ʶ2B6 ħ 𐞕10795(ʩ 𐞐)10790 ʕ ˤ,ˁ2E4,2C1[note11] h ʰ2B0 ɦ ʱ2B1 Approximant ʋ ᶹ1DB9 ɹ ʴ2B4 ɻ ʵ2B5 j ʲ2B2(ɥ ᶣ)1DA3   (ʍ ꭩ)AB69 ɰ ᶭ1DAD(w ʷ)2B7 Tap/flap ⱱ 𐞰107B0 ɾ 𐞩107A9 ɽ 𐞨107A8 Trill ʙ 𐞄10784 r ʳ2B3 ʀ 𐞪107AA ʜ 𐞖10796 ʢ𐞴107B4 Lateralfricative ɬ 𐞛1079B(ʪ 𐞙)10799 ɮ 𐞞1079E(ʫ 𐞚)1079A ꞎ 𐞝1079D 𝼅 𐞟1079F 𝼆 𐞡107A1 𝼄 𐞜1079C Lateralapproximant l ˡ2E1(ɫꭞ)AB5E[note12] ɭ ᶩ1DA9 ʎ𐞠107A0 ʟ ᶫ1DAB Lateraltap/flap ɺ𐞦107A6 𝼈 𐞧107A7 Implosive ɓ𐞅10785 ɗ𐞌1078C ᶑ𐞍1078D ʄ𐞘10798 ɠ𐞓10793 ʛ𐞔10794 Clickrelease ʘ𐞵107B5 ǀ𐞶107B6 ǃꜝA71D[note13] 𝼊𐞹107B9 ǂ𐞸107B8 Lateralclickrelease ǁ𐞷107B7 Thespacingdiacriticforejectiveconsonants,U+2BC,workswithsuperscriptlettersdespitenotbeingsuperscriptitself:⟨ᵖʼᵗʼᶜʼᵏˣʼ⟩.Ifadistinctionneedstobemade,thecombiningapostropheU+315maybeused:⟨ᵖ̕ᵗ̕ᶜ̕ᵏˣ̕⟩.Thespacingdiacriticshouldbeusedforabaselineletterwithasuperscriptrelease,suchas[tˢʼ]or[kˣʼ],wherethescopeoftheapostropheincludesthenon-superscriptletter,butthecombiningapostropheU+315mightbeusedtoindicateaweaklyarticulatedejectiveconsonant,wherethewholeconsonantiswrittenasasuperscript,ortogetherwithU+2BCwhenseparateapostropheshavescopeoverthebaseandmodifierletters,asin⟨pʼᵏˣ̕⟩.[107] IPAvowelsandsuperscriptvariants Front Central Back Close iⁱ2071 yʸ2B8 ɨᶤ1DA4 ʉᶶ1DB6 ɯᵚ1D5A uᵘ1D58 Near-close ɪᶦ1DA6 ʏ𐞲107B2 ʊᶷ1DB7 Close-mid eᵉ1D49 ø𐞢107A2 ɘ𐞎1078E ɵᶱ1DB1 ɤ𐞑10791 oᵒ1D52 Mid əᵊ1D4A Open-mid ɛᵋ1D4B œꟹA7F9 ɜᶟ1D9F[note14] ɞ𐞏1078F ʌᶺ1DBA ɔᵓ1D53 Near-open æ𐞃10783[note15] ɶ𐞣107A3 ɐᵄ1D44 ɑᵅ1D45 ɒᶛ1D9B Open aᵃ1D43 Inaddition,theoldalternativenear-closevowelletters⟨ɩ⟩and⟨ɷ⟩aresupportedatU+1DA5⟨ᶥ⟩andU+107A4⟨𐞤⟩.Thepara-IPAletterforacentralreducedvowel,⟨ᵻ⟩,issupportedatU+1DA7⟨ᶧ⟩;itsroundedequivalent,⟨ᵿ⟩,isnotsupportedbyUnicode. Theprecomposedrhoticvowelletters⟨ɚɝ⟩arenotsupported,astherhoticdiacriticshouldbeusedinstead:⟨ᵊ˞ᶟ˞⟩;similarlywithotherrhoticvowels.[46] Lengthmarks Long Half-long ː𐞁10781 ˑ𐞂10782 Superscriptlengthmarkscanbeused,amongotherthings,forindicatingthelengthofaspirationofaconsonant,e.g.[pʰtʰ𐞂kʰ𐞁].Anotheroptionistodoublethediacritic:⟨kʰʰ⟩.[46] Superscriptletterscanbemeaningfullymodifiedbycombiningdiacritics,justasbaselinelettersare.Forexample,asuperscriptdentalnasalis⟨ⁿ̪d̪⟩,asuperscriptvoicelessvelarnasalis⟨ᵑ̊ǂ⟩,andlabial-velarprenasalizationis⟨ᵑ͡ᵐɡ͡b⟩.Althoughthediacriticmayseemabitoversizedcomparedtothesuperscriptletteritmodifies,aswiththecompositesuperscriptc-cedillaandtherhoticvowelsthiscanbeanaidtolegibility:⟨ᵓ̃⟩. Spacingdiacritics,however,asin⟨tʲ⟩,cannotbesecondarilysuperscriptedinplaintext:⟨ᵗʲ⟩.[note16] Superscriptwildcardsarepartiallysupported:e.g.ᴺC(prenasalizedconsonant),ꟲN(prestoppednasal),Pꟳ(fricativerelease),CVNᵀ(tone-bearingsyllable),Vᴳ(glide/diphthong),CᴸandCᴿ(liquidorlateralandrhoticorresonantrelease),NᴾF(epentheticplosive),Cⱽ(fleetingvowel).However,superscriptSandꞰforsibilantreleaseandfleeting/epentheticclickreleasearenotsupportedasofUnicode14. Obsoleteandnonstandardsymbols[edit] Mainarticles:ObsoleteandnonstandardsymbolsintheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet,Clickletter,andSinologicalextensionstotheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet AnumberofIPAlettersanddiacriticshavebeenretiredorreplacedovertheyears.Thisnumberincludesduplicatesymbols,symbolsthatwerereplacedduetouserpreference,andunitarysymbolsthatwererenderedwithdiacriticsordigraphstoreducetheinventoryoftheIPA.Therejectedsymbolsarenowconsideredobsolete,thoughsomearestillseenintheliterature. TheIPAoncehadseveralpairsofduplicatesymbolsfromalternativeproposals,buteventuallysettledononeortheother.Anexampleisthevowelletter⟨ɷ⟩,rejectedinfavorof⟨ʊ⟩.Affricateswereoncetranscribedwithligatures,suchas⟨ʦʣ,ʧʤ,ʨʥ,ꭧꭦ⟩(andothersnotfoundinUnicode).Thesehavebeenofficiallyretiredbutarestillused.Lettersforspecificcombinationsofprimaryandsecondaryarticulationhavealsobeenmostlyretired,withtheideathatsuchfeaturesshouldbeindicatedwithtiebarsordiacritics:⟨ƍ⟩for[zʷ]isone.Inaddition,therarevoicelessimplosives,⟨ƥƭƈƙʠ⟩,weredroppedsoonaftertheirintroductionandarenowusuallywritten⟨ɓ̥ɗ̥ʄ̊ɠ̊ʛ̥⟩.Theoriginalsetofclickletters,⟨ʇ,ʗ,ʖ,ʞ⟩,wasretiredbutisstillsometimesseen,asthecurrentpipeletters⟨ǀ,ǃ,ǁ,ǂ⟩cancauseproblemswithlegibility,especiallywhenusedwithbrackets([]or//),theletter⟨l⟩,ortheprosodicmarks⟨|,‖⟩.(Forthisreason,somepublicationswhichusethecurrentIPApipelettersdisallowIPAbrackets.)[109] Individualnon-IPAlettersmayfindtheirwayintopublicationsthatotherwiseusethestandardIPA.Thisisespeciallycommonwith: Affricates,suchastheAmericanistbarredlambda⟨ƛ⟩for[t͜ɬ]or⟨č⟩for[t͡ʃ].[110] TheKarlgrenlettersforChinesevowels,ɿ,ʅ,ʮ,ʯ Digitsfortonalphonemesthathaveconventionalnumbersinalocaltradition,suchasthefourtonesofStandardChinese.Thismaybemoreconvenientforcomparisonbetweenrelatedlanguagesanddialectsthanaphonetictranscriptionwouldbe,becausetonesvarymoreunpredictablythansegmentalphonemesdo. Digitsfortonelevels,whicharesimplertotypeset,thoughthelackofstandardizationcancauseconfusion(e.g.⟨1⟩ishightoneinsomelanguagesbutlowtoneinothers;⟨3⟩maybehigh,mediumorlowtone,dependingonthelocalconvention). IconicextensionsofstandardIPAlettersthatcanbereadilyunderstood,suchasretroflex⟨ᶑ ⟩and⟨ꞎ⟩.ThesearereferredtointheHandbookandhavebeenincludedinIPArequestsforUnicodesupport. Inaddition,itiscommontoseeadhoctypewritersubstitutions,generallycapitalletters,forwhenIPAsupportisnotavailable,e.g.Afor⟨ɑ⟩,Bfor⟨β⟩or⟨ɓ⟩,Dfor⟨ð⟩,⟨ɗ⟩or⟨ɖ⟩,Efor⟨ɛ⟩,ForPfor⟨ɸ⟩,G⟨ɣ⟩,I⟨ɪ⟩,L⟨ɬ⟩,N⟨ŋ⟩,O⟨ɔ⟩,S⟨ʃ⟩,T⟨θ⟩or⟨ʈ⟩,U⟨ʊ⟩,V⟨ʋ⟩,X⟨χ⟩,Z⟨ʒ⟩,aswellas@for⟨ə⟩and7or ?for⟨ʔ⟩.(SeealsoSAMPAandX-SAMPAsubstitutenotation.) Extensions[edit] ChartoftheExtensionstotheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(extIPA),asof2015Mainarticle:ExtensionstotheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet The"ExtensionstotheIPA",oftenabbreviatedas"extIPA"andsometimescalled"ExtendedIPA",aresymbolswhoseoriginalpurposewastoaccuratelytranscribedisorderedspeech.AttheKielConventionin1989,agroupoflinguistsdrewuptheinitialextensions,[111]whichwerebasedonthepreviousworkofthePRDS(PhoneticRepresentationofDisorderedSpeech)Groupintheearly1980s.[112]Theextensionswerefirstpublishedin1990,thenmodified,andpublishedagainin1994intheJournaloftheInternationalPhoneticAssociation,whentheywereofficiallyadoptedbytheICPLA.[113]Whiletheoriginalpurposewastotranscribedisorderedspeech,linguistshaveusedtheextensionstodesignateanumberofsoundswithinstandardcommunication,suchashushing,gnashingteeth,andsmackinglips,[2]aswellasregularlexicalsoundssuchaslateralfricativesthatdonothavestandardIPAsymbols. InadditiontotheExtensionstotheIPAfordisorderedspeech,therearetheconventionsoftheVoiceQualitySymbols,whichincludeanumberofsymbolsforadditionalairstreammechanismsandsecondaryarticulationsinwhattheycall"voicequality". Associatednotation[edit] Capitallettersandvariouscharactersonthenumberrowofthekeyboardarecommonlyusedtoextendthealphabetinvariousways. Associatedsymbols[edit] Therearevariouspunctuation-likeconventionsforlinguistictranscriptionthatarecommonlyusedtogetherwithIPA.Someofthemorecommonare: ⟨*⟩ (a)Areconstructedform. (b)Anungrammaticalform(includinganunphonemicform). ⟨**⟩ (a)Areconstructedform,deeper(moreancient)thanasingle⟨*⟩,usedwhenreconstructingevenfurtherbackfromalready-starredforms. (b)Anungrammaticalform.Alesscommonconventionthan⟨*⟩(b),thisissometimesusedwhenreconstructedandungrammaticalformsoccurinthesametext.[114] ⟨×⟩ Anungrammaticalform.Alesscommonconventionthan⟨*⟩(b),thisissometimesusedwhenreconstructedandungrammaticalformsoccurinthesametext. ⟨?⟩ Adoubtfullygrammaticalform. ⟨%⟩ Ageneralizedform,suchasatypicalshapeofawanderwortthathasnotactuallybeenreconstructed.[115] ⟨#⟩ Awordboundary–e.g.⟨#V⟩foraword-initialvowel. ⟨$⟩ Aphonologicalwordboundary;e.g.⟨H$⟩forahightonethatoccursinsuchaposition. Capitalletters[edit] FullcapitallettersarenotusedasIPAsymbols,exceptastypewritersubstitutes(e.g.Nfor⟨ŋ⟩,Sfor⟨ʃ⟩,Ofor⟨ɔ⟩–seeSAMPA).Theyare,however,oftenusedinconjunctionwiththeIPAintwocases: forarchiphonemesandfornaturalclassesofsounds(thatis,aswildcards).TheextIPAchart,forexample,useswildcardsinitsillustrations. asVoiceQualitySymbols. Wildcardsarecommonlyusedinphonologytosummarizesyllableorwordshapes,ortoshowtheevolutionofclassesofsounds.Forexample,thepossiblesyllableshapesofMandarincanbeabstractedasrangingfrom/V/(anatonicvowel)to/CGVNᵀ/(aconsonant-glide-vowel-nasalsyllablewithtone),andword-finaldevoicingmaybeschematizedasC→C̥/_#.Inspeechpathology,capitallettersrepresentindeterminatesounds,andmaybesuperscriptedtoindicatetheyareweaklyarticulated:e.g.[ᴰ]isaweakindeterminatealveolar,[ᴷ]aweakindeterminatevelar.[116] Thereisadegreeofvariationbetweenauthorsastothecapitallettersused,but⟨C⟩for{consonant},⟨V⟩for{vowel}and⟨N⟩for{nasal}areubiquitous.Othercommonconventionsare⟨T⟩for{tone/accent}(tonicity),⟨P⟩for{plosive},⟨F⟩for{fricative},⟨S⟩for{sibilant},[117]⟨G⟩for{glide/semivowel},⟨L⟩for{lateral}or{liquid},⟨R⟩for{rhotic}or{resonant/sonorant},[118]⟨₵⟩for{obstruent},⟨Ʞ⟩for{click},⟨A,E,O,Ɨ,U⟩for{open,front,back,close,roundedvowel}[119]and⟨B,D,Ɉ,K,Q,Φ,H⟩for{labial,alveolar,post-alveolar/palatal,velar,uvular,pharyngeal,glottal[120]consonant},respectively,and⟨X⟩foranysound.TheletterscanbemodifiedwithIPAdiacritics,forexample⟨Cʼ⟩for{ejective},⟨Ƈ⟩for{implosive},⟨N͡C⟩or⟨ᴺC⟩for{prenasalizedconsonant},⟨Ṽ⟩for{nasalvowel},⟨CʰV́⟩for{aspiratedCVsyllablewithhightone},⟨S̬⟩for{voicedsibilant},⟨N̥⟩for{voicelessnasal},⟨P͡F⟩or⟨Pꟳ⟩for{affricate},⟨Cʲ⟩for{palatalizedconsonant}and⟨D̪⟩for{dentalconsonant}.⟨H⟩,⟨M⟩,⟨L⟩arealsocommonlyusedforhigh,midandlowtone,with⟨HL⟩forfallingtone(also⟨HM⟩,⟨ML⟩,occasionally⟨F⟩),⟨LH⟩forrisingtone(also⟨LM⟩,⟨MH⟩,occasionally⟨R⟩),etc.,ratherthantranscribingthemoverlypreciselywithIPAtonelettersorwithambiguousdigits. Typicalexamplesofarchiphonemicuseofcapitallettersare⟨I⟩fortheTurkishharmonicvowelset{iyɯu},[121]⟨D⟩fortheconflatedflappedmiddleconsonantofAmericanEnglishwriterandrider,and⟨N⟩forthehomorganicsyllable-codanasaloflanguagessuchasSpanishandJapanese(essentiallyequivalenttothewild-cardusageoftheletter). ⟨V⟩,⟨F⟩and⟨C⟩havecompletelydifferentmeaningsasVoiceQualitySymbols,wheretheystandfor"voice"(thoughgenerallymeaningsecondaryarticulation,asina'nasalvoice',ratherthanphoneticvoicing),"falsetto"and"creak".Theymayalsotakediacriticsthatindicatewhatkindofvoicequalityanutterancehas,andmaybeusedtoextractasuprasegmentalfeaturethatoccursonallsusceptiblesegmentsinastretchofIPA.Forinstance,thetranscriptionofScottishGaelic[kʷʰuˣʷt̪ʷs̟ʷ]'cat'and[kʷʰʉˣʷt͜ʃʷ]'cats'(Islaydialect)canbemademoreeconomicalbyextractingthesuprasegmentallabializationofthewords:Vʷ[kʰuˣt̪s̟]andVʷ[kʰʉˣt͜ʃ].[122]TheusualwildcardXorCmightbeusedinsteadofV(i.e.,Xʷ[kʰuˣt̪s̟]forallsegmentslabialized,Cʷ[kʰuˣt̪s̟]forallconsonantslabialized),oromittedaltogether(ʷ[kʰuˣt̪s̟]),sothatthereaderdoesnotmisinterpret⟨Vʷ⟩asmeaningthatonlyvowelsarelabialized.(See§ Suprasegmentalsforothertranscriptionconventions.) Segmentswithoutletters[edit] TheblankcellsontheIPAchartcanbefilledwithouttoomuchdifficultyiftheneedarises.Someadhoclettershaveappearedintheliteraturefortheretroflexlateralflapandtheretroflexclicks(havingtheexpectedformsof⟨ɺ⟩and⟨ǃ⟩plusaretroflextail;theanalogous⟨ᶑ⟩foraretrofleximplosiveisevenmentionedintheIPAHandbook),thevoicelesslateralfricatives(nowprovidedforbytheextIPA),theepiglottaltrill(arguablycoveredbythegenerallytrilledepiglottal"fricatives"⟨ʜʢ⟩),thelabiodentalplosives(⟨ȹȸ⟩insomeoldBantuisttexts)andthenear-closecentralvowels(⟨ᵻᵿ⟩insomepublications).Diacriticscanduplicatesomeofthose,suchas⟨ɭ̆⟩forthelateralflap,⟨p̪b̪⟩forthelabiodentalplosivesand⟨ɪ̈ʊ̈⟩forthecentralvowels,andareabletofillinmostoftheremainderofthecharts.[123]Ifasoundcannotbetranscribed,anasterisk⟨*⟩maybeused,eitherasaletterorasadiacritic(asin⟨k*⟩sometimesseenfortheKorean"fortis"velar). Consonants[edit] Representationsofconsonantsoundsoutsideofthecoresetarecreatedbyaddingdiacriticstoletterswithsimilarsoundvalues.TheSpanishbilabialanddentalapproximantsarecommonlywrittenasloweredfricatives,[β̞]and[ð̞]respectively.[124]Similarly,voicedlateralfricativeswouldbewrittenasraisedlateralapproximants,[ɭ˔ʎ̝ʟ̝].AfewlanguagessuchasBandahaveabilabialflapasthepreferredallophoneofwhatiselsewherealabiodentalflap.Ithasbeensuggestedthatthisbewrittenwiththelabiodentalflapletterandtheadvanceddiacritic,[ⱱ̟].[125] Similarly,alabiodentaltrillwouldbewritten[ʙ̪](bilabialtrillandthedentalsign),andlabiodentalstops[p̪b̪]ratherthanwiththeadhocletterssometimesfoundintheliterature.Othertapscanbewrittenasextra-shortplosivesorlaterals,e.g.[ɟ̆ɢ̆ʟ̆],thoughinsomecasesthediacriticwouldneedtobewrittenbelowtheletter.Aretroflextrillcanbewrittenasaretracted[r̠],justasnon-subapicalretroflexfricativessometimesare.Theremainingconsonants,theuvularlaterals(ʟ̠etc.)andthepalataltrill,whilenotstrictlyimpossible,areverydifficulttopronounceandareunlikelytooccurevenasallophonesintheworld'slanguages. Vowels[edit] Thevowelsaresimilarlymanageablebyusingdiacriticsforraising,lowering,fronting,backing,centering,andmid-centering.[126]Forexample,theunroundedequivalentof[ʊ]canbetranscribedasmid-centered[ɯ̽],andtheroundedequivalentof[æ]asraised[ɶ̝]orlowered[œ̞](thoughforthosewhoconceiveofvowelspaceasatriangle,simple[ɶ]alreadyistheroundedequivalentof[æ]).Truemidvowelsarelowered[e̞ø̞ɘ̞ɵ̞ɤ̞o̞]orraised[ɛ̝œ̝ɜ̝ɞ̝ʌ̝ɔ̝],whilecentered[ɪ̈ʊ̈]and[ä](or,lesscommonly,[ɑ̈])arenear-closeandopencentralvowels,respectively.Theonlyknownvowelsthatcannotberepresentedinthisschemearevowelswithunexpectedroundedness,whichwouldrequireadedicateddiacritic,suchasprotruded⟨ʏʷ⟩andcompressed⟨uᵝ⟩(orprotruded⟨ɪʷ⟩andcompressed⟨ɯᶹ⟩). Symbolnames[edit] Mainarticle:NamingconventionsoftheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet AnIPAsymbolisoftendistinguishedfromthesounditisintendedtorepresent,sincethereisnotnecessarilyaone-to-onecorrespondencebetweenletterandsoundinbroadtranscription,makingarticulatorydescriptionssuchas"midfrontroundedvowel"or"voicedvelarstop"unreliable.WhiletheHandbookoftheInternationalPhoneticAssociationstatesthatnoofficialnamesexistforitssymbols,itadmitsthepresenceofoneortwocommonnamesforeach.[127]ThesymbolsalsohavenoncenamesintheUnicodestandard.Inmanycases,thenamesinUnicodeandtheIPAHandbookdiffer.Forexample,theHandbookcallsɛ"epsilon",butUnicodecallsit"smallletteropene". ThetraditionalnamesoftheLatinandGreeklettersareusuallyusedforunmodifiedletters.[note17]Letterswhicharenotdirectlyderivedfromthesealphabets,suchas[ʕ],mayhaveavarietyofnames,sometimesbasedontheappearanceofthesymboloronthesoundthatitrepresents.InUnicode,someofthelettersofGreekoriginhaveLatinformsforuseinIPA;theothersusethelettersfromtheGreeksection. Fordiacritics,therearetwomethodsofnaming.Fortraditionaldiacritics,theIPAnotesthenameinawellknownlanguage;forexample,éise-acute,basedonthenameofthediacriticinEnglishandFrench.Non-traditionaldiacriticsareoftennamedafterobjectstheyresemble,sod̪iscalledd-bridge. GeoffreyPullumandWilliamLadusawlistavarietyofnamesinuseforIPAsymbols,bothcurrentandretired,intheirPhoneticSymbolGuide.[10] Computersupport[edit] Unicode[edit] Mainarticle:PhoneticsymbolsinUnicode IPAnumbers[edit] Eachcharacter,letterordiacritic,isassignedanumber,topreventconfusionbetweensimilarcharacters(suchasɵandθ,ɤandɣ,orʃandʄ)insuchsituationsastheprintingofmanuscripts.Thecategoriesofsoundsareassigneddifferentrangesofnumbers.[128] 100-184areconsonants,301-397arevowels,401-433arediacritics,501-509aresuprasegmentalsand510-533aretonalmarks. Consonants(pulmonic) Bilabial Labiodental Alveolar Retroflex Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyngeal Glottal Plosive 101102 103104 105106 107108 109110 111112 113 Nasal 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 Trill 121 122 123 TaporFlap 184 124 125 Fricative 126127 128129 130-135 136137 138139 140141 142143 144145 146147 Lateralfricative 148149 Approximant 150 151 152 153 154 Lateralapproximant 155 156 157 158 Consonants(non-pulmonic) Voicedimplosives Clicks 160 Bilabial 176 Bilabial 162 Dental/alveolar 177 Dental 164 Palatal 178 (Post)alveolar 166 Velar 179 Palatoalveolar 168 Uvular 180 Alveolarlateral Othersymbols 169 Voicelesslabial-velarfricative 181 Voicedalveolarlateralflap 170 Voicedlabial-velarapproximant 182 Alveolo-palatalfricatives 171 Voicedlabial-palatalapproximant 183 172 Voicelessepiglottalfricative 184 Labiodentaltaporflap(shownabove) 173 Epiglottalplosive (509) 433 Affricatesanddoublearticulations canberepresentedbytwosymbols joinedbyatiebarifnecessary. 174 Voicedepiglottalfricative 175 Simultaneous134and140 209 Velarizedalveolarlateralapproximant(ɫ) 327 Rhoticmidcentralvowel(ɚ) Vowels Front Central Back C 301 309 317 318 316 308 319 320 321 MC 302 310 397 323 315 307 322 MO 303 311 326 395 314 306 325 324 O 304 312 305 313 Diacritics 401 Ejective Somediacriticsmaybeplacedaboveasymbolwithadescender,e.g.119+402B 402A Voiceless 405 Breathyvoiced 408 Dental 403 Voiced 406 Creakyvoiced 409 Apical 404 Aspirated 407 Linguolabial 410 Laminal 411 Morerounded 420 Labialized 424 Nasalized 412 Lessrounded 421 Palatalized 425 Nasalrelease 413 Advanced 422 Velarized 426 Lateralrelease 414 Retracted 423 Pharyngealized 427 Noaudiblerelease 415 Centralized 428 Velarizedorpharyngealized 433 Tiebar(shownabove) 416 Mid-centralized 429 Raised 417 AdvancedTongueRoot 430 Lowered 418 RetractedTongueRoot 431 Syllabic 419 Rhoticity 432 Non-syllabic Suprasegmentals 501 Primarystress 506 Syllablebreak 502 Secondarystress 507 Minor(foot)group 503 Long 508 Major(intonation)group 504 Half-long 509 Linking(absenceofabreak) 505 Extra-short Toneandwordaccents Level Contour 512 or 519 Extrahigh 524 or 529 Rising 513 520 High 525 530 Falling 514 521 Mid 526 531 Highrising 515 522 Low 527 532 Lowrising 516 523 Extralow 528 533 Rising-falling 517 Downstep 510 Globalrise 518 Upstep 511 Globalfall Typefaces[edit] IPAtypefacesupportisincreasing,andnearlycompleteIPAsupportwithgooddiacriticrenderingisprovidedbyafewtypefacesthatcomepre-installedwithvariouscomputeroperatingsystems,suchasCalibri,aswellassomefreelyavailablebutcommercialfontssuchasBrill,butmostpre-installedfonts,suchastheubiquitousArial,NotoSansandTimesNewRoman,areneithercompletenorrendermanydiacriticsproperly. TypefacesthatprovidenearlyfullIPAsupport,properlyrenderdiacriticsandarefreelyavailableinclude: Gentium(GentiumPlus,GentiumPlusCompactandGentiumBookPlus) CharisSIL DoulosSIL Andika FreetypefacesthatprovidegoodIPAsupport,butdon'thandlecombinationsofdiacriticsortoneletterswell,include: LinuxBiolinum WebbrowsersgenerallydonotneedanyconfigurationtodisplayIPAcharacters,providedthatatypefacecapableofdoingsoisavailabletotheoperatingsystem. ASCIIandkeyboardtransliterations[edit] Furtherinformation:ComparisonofASCIIencodingsoftheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet SeveralsystemshavebeendevelopedthatmaptheIPAsymbolstoASCIIcharacters.NotablesystemsincludeSAMPAandX-SAMPA.Theusageofmappingsystemsinon-linetexthastosomeextentbeenadoptedinthecontextinputmethods,allowingconvenientkeyingofIPAcharactersthatwouldbeotherwiseunavailableonstandardkeyboardlayouts. IETFlanguagetags[edit] IETFlanguagetagshaveregisteredfonipaasavariantsubtagidentifyingtextaswritteninIPA.[129] Thus,anIPAtranscriptionofEnglishcouldbetaggedasen-fonipa. FortheuseofIPAwithoutattributiontoaconcretelanguage,und-fonipaisavailable. Computerinputusingon-screenkeyboard[edit] OnlineIPAkeyboardutilities[130]areavailable,andtheycoverthecompleterangeofIPAsymbolsanddiacritics.InApril2019,Google'sGboardforAndroidaddedanIPAkeyboardtoitsplatform.[131][132]ForiOStherearemultiplefreekeyboardlayoutsavailable,e.g."IPAPhoneticKeyboard".[133] Seealso[edit] Afroasiaticphoneticnotation Americanistphoneticnotation –Phoneticalphabetdevelopedinthe1880s ArabicInternationalPhoneticAlphabet –SystemofphonetictranscriptiontoadapttheInternationalPhoneticAlphabettotheArabicscript Articulatoryphonetics –Abranchoflinguisticsstudyinghowhumansmakesounds CasevariantsofIPAletters –lettercasevariantsoftheInternationalPhoneticAlphabetrepertoire,adoptedforuseinvariousnationalalphabets CursiveformsoftheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet –DeprecatedcursiveformsofIPAsymbols ExtensionstotheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet –SetoflettersanddiacriticstoaugmenttheInternationalPhoneticAlphabetforthephonetictranscriptionofdisorderedspeech Indexofphoneticsarticles InternationalAlphabetofSanskritTransliteration –TransliterationschemeforIndicscripts InternationalPhoneticAlphabetchartforEnglishdialects Listofinternationalcommonstandards LucianoCanepari –Italianlinguist PhoneticsymbolsinUnicode –RepresentationofphoneticsymbolsintheUnicodeStandard RFEPhoneticAlphabet SAMPA –SpeechAssessmentMethodsPhoneticAlphabet:acomputer-readablephoneticscriptusingASCIIcharacters SemyonNovgorodov –Yakutpoliticianandlinguist–inventorofIPA-basedYakutscripts TIPAprovidesIPAsupportforLaTeX UAIphoneticalphabet UralicPhoneticAlphabet –PhoneticalphabetforUraliclanguages VoiceQualitySymbols –Setofphoneticsymbolsusedforvoicequality,suchastotranscribedisorderedspeech X-SAMPA –RemappingoftheIPAintoASCII Notes[edit] ^Theinvertedbridgeunderthe⟨t⟩specifiesitasapical(pronouncedwiththetipofthetongue),andthesuperscripthshowsthatitisaspirated(breathy).BoththesequalitiescausetheEnglish[t]tosounddifferentfromtheFrenchorSpanish[t],whichisalaminal(pronouncedwiththebladeofthetongue)andunaspirated[t̻].⟨t̺ʰ⟩and⟨t̻⟩thusrepresenttwodifferent,thoughsimilar,sounds. ^ Forinstance,flapsandtapsaretwodifferentkindsofarticulation,butsincenolanguagehas(yet)beenfoundtomakeadistinctionbetween,say,analveolarflapandanalveolartap,theIPAdoesnotprovidesuchsoundswithdedicatedletters.Instead,itprovidesasingleletter(inthiscase, [ɾ])forboth.Strictlyspeaking,thismakestheIPAapartiallyphonemicalphabet,notapurelyphoneticone. ^ThisexceptiontotheruleswasmadeprimarilytoexplainwhytheIPAdoesnotmakeadental–alveolardistinction,despiteonebeingphonemicinhundredsoflanguages,includingmostofthecontinentofAustralia.AmericanistPhoneticNotationmakes(oratleastmade)adistinctionbetweenapical⟨tdsznl⟩andlaminal⟨τδςζνλ⟩,whichiseasilyapplicabletoalveolarvsdental(whenalanguagedistinguishesapicalalveolarfromlaminaldental,asinAustralia),butdespiteseveralproposalstotheCouncil,theIPAnevervotedtoacceptsuchadistinction. ^ Therearethreebasictonediacriticsandfivebasictoneletters,bothsetsofwhichmaybecompounded. ^ "Thenon-romanlettersoftheInternationalPhoneticAlphabethavebeendesignedasfaraspossibletoharmonizewellwiththeromanletters.TheAssociationdoesnotrecognizemakeshiftletters;Itrecognizesonlyletterswhichhavebeencarefullycutsoastobeinharmonywiththeotherletters."(IPA1949) ^Merriam-Websterdictionariesusebackslashes\ ... \todemarcatetheirin-housetranscriptionsystem.ThisdistinguishestheirIPA-influencedsystemfromtrueIPA,whichisusedbetweenforwardslashesintheOxfordEnglishDictionary. ^TheproperanglebracketsinUnicodearethemathematicalsymbols(U+27E8andU+27E9).Chevrons‹...›(U+2039,U+203A)aresometimessubstituted,asinAmericanistphoneticnotation,asaretheless-thanandgreater-thansigns<...>(U+003C,U+003E)foundonASCIIkeyboards. ^RussiansourcescommonlyuseU+2E3E⸾WIGGLYVERTICALLINE(approx.⌇)forsomethinglessthanaminorbreak,suchaslistintonation(e.g.theveryslightbreakbetweendigitsinatelephonenumber).[80]AdottedlineU+2E3D⸽VERTICALSIXDOTSissometimesseeninstead. ^NottobeconfusedwithU+1D4D⟨ᵍ⟩,whichisanormalsuperscriptLating. ^Superscript⟨ç⟩iscomposedofsuperscriptcandacombiningcedilla,whichshoulddisplayproperlyinagoodfont.SuperscriptcwasspecificallyrequestedforthispurposeinUnicodeproposalL2/03-180. ^Thesetwocharactersareessentiallythesame.U+02E4ˤMODIFIERLETTERSMALLREVERSEDGLOTTALSTOP,(middle),isspecificallyasuperscriptvariantofU+0295ʕLATINLETTERPHARYNGEALVOICEDFRICATIVE,whereasU+02C1ˁMODIFIERLETTERREVERSEDGLOTTALSTOP(right),isareversedU+02C0ˀMODIFIERLETTERGLOTTALSTOP–whichbyitsUnicodedescriptionshouldbethesameletter.BothcharactersseeusebeyondtheIPAalphabet,andfontsareinconsistentinwhethertheylookdifferentandwhatthedifferenceis.ThereisnoparallelIPA/para-IPAdistinctionforsuperscriptglottalstop. ^InMicrosoftfontsthischaracterwaserroneouslydesignedasasuperscript⟨ꬸ⟩. ^U+A71D⟨ꜝ⟩andA71E⟨ꜞ⟩hadearlierbeenadoptedfortheAfricanistequivalentsoftheIPAcharacters⟨ꜜ⟩downstepand⟨ꜛ⟩upstep.U+A71EalsoservesasthesuperscriptoftheextIPApercussiveconsonant⟨¡⟩. ^NottobeconfusedwithU+1D4C⟨ᵌ⟩,whichissuperscriptᴈ(aturnedratherthanreversedɛ). ^NottobeconfusedwithU+1D46⟨ᵆ⟩,whichissuperscriptturnedæ. ^Inthisinstance,theoldIPAletterfor[tʲ],⟨ƫ⟩,hasasuperscriptvariantinUnicode,U+1DB5⟨ᶵ⟩,asdoesthelateral,U+1DDA⟨ᶪ⟩,butthatisnotgenerallythecase. ^ Forexample,[p]iscalled"Lower-caseP"and[χ]is"Chi."(InternationalPhoneticAssociation,Handbook,p. 171) References[edit] ^abcdInternationalPhoneticAssociation(IPA),Handbook. ^abcdefMacMahon,MichaelK.C.(1996)."PhoneticNotation".InP.T.Daniels;W.Bright(eds.).TheWorld'sWritingSystems.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.pp. 821–846.ISBN 0-19-507993-0. ^Wall,Joan(1989).InternationalPhoneticAlphabetforSingers:AManualforEnglishandForeignLanguageDiction.Pst.ISBN 1-877761-50-8. ^"IPA:Alphabet".Langsci.ucl.ac.uk.Archivedfromtheoriginalon10October2012.Retrieved20November2012. ^"FullIPAChart".InternationalPhoneticAssociation.Retrieved24April2017. ^abcdeInternationalPhoneticAssociation,Handbook,pp. 194–196 ^"Originally,theaimwastomakeavailableasetofphoneticsymbolswhichwouldbegivendifferentarticulatoryvalues,ifnecessary,indifferentlanguages."(InternationalPhoneticAssociation,Handbook,pp. 195–196) ^Passy,Paul(1888)."Ourrevisedalphabet".ThePhoneticTeacher:57–60. ^IPAintheEncyclopædiaBritannica ^abcPullumandLadusaw,PhoneticSymbolGuide,pp. 152,209 ^Nicolaidis,Katerina(September2005)."ApprovalofNewIPASound:TheLabiodentalFlap".InternationalPhoneticAssociation.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2September2006.Retrieved17September2006. ^InternationalPhoneticAssociation,Handbook,p. 186 ^"Fromitsearliestdays[...]theInternationalPhoneticAssociationhasaimedtoprovide'aseparatesignforeachdistinctivesound;thatis,foreachsoundwhich,beingusedinsteadofanother,inthesamelanguage,canchangethemeaningofaword'."(InternationalPhoneticAssociation,Handbook,p. 27) ^Originally,[ʊ]waswrittenasasmallcapitalU.However,thiswasnoteasytoread,andsoitwasreplacedwithaturnedsmallcapitalomega.Inmoderntypefaces,itoftenhasitsowndesign,calleda'horseshoe'. ^Cf.thenotesattheUnicodeIPAEXTENSIONScodechartaswellasblogsbyMichaelEversonArchived10October2017attheWaybackMachineandJohnWellshereandhere. ^Handbook,InternationalPhoneticAssociation,p. 196,Thenewlettersshouldbesuggestiveofthesoundstheyrepresent,bytheirresemblancetotheoldones.. ^abcIPAHandbookp.175 ^abIPAHandbookp.176 ^IPAHandbookp.191 ^IPA(1999)Handbook,p188,192 ^IPA(1999)Handbook,p176,192 ^Duckworthetal.(1990)ExtensionstotheInternationalPhoneticAlphabetforthetranscriptionofatypicalspeech.ClinicalLinguistics&Phonetics4:4:278. ^Basbøll(2005)ThePhonologyofDanishpp.45,59 ^Karlsson&Sullivan(2005)/sP/consonantclustersinSwedish:Acousticmeasurementsofphonologicaldevelopment ^Forexample,thesingleanddoublepipesymbolsareusedforprosodicbreaks.AlthoughtheHandbookspecifiestheprosodicsymbolsas"thick"verticallines,whichwouldbedistinctfromsimpleASCIIpipes(similartoDaniatranscription),thisisoptionalandwasintendedtokeepthemdistinctfromthepipesusedasclickletters(JIPA19.2,p.75).TheHandbook(p.174)assignstothemthedigitalencodingsU+007C,whichisthesimpleASCIIpipesymbol,andU+2016. ^RichardSproat(2000)AComputationalTheoryofWritingSystems.CambridgeUniversityPress.Page26. ^BarryHeselwood(2013)PhoneticTranscriptioninTheoryandPractice.EdinburghUniversityPress.Page8ff,29ff. ^PaulTench(2011)TranscribingtheSoundofEnglish.CambridgeUniversityPress.Page61. ^InternationalPhoneticAssociation1999,p. 31. ^Associationphonétiqueinternationale(January1895)."vɔtsyrlalfabɛ"[Votessurl'alphabet].LeMaîtrePhonétique.10(1):16–17.JSTOR 44707535. ^Associationphonétiqueinternationale(February–March1900a)."aktɔfisjɛl"[Acteofficiel].LeMaîtrePhonétique.15(2/3):20.JSTOR 44701257. ^Associationphonétiqueinternationale(July–September1931)."desizjɔ̃ofisjɛl"[Décisionsofficielles].LeMaîtrePhonétique(35):40–42.JSTOR 44704452. ^Jones,Daniel(July–December1948)."desizjɔ̃ofisjɛl"[Décisionsofficielles].LeMaîtrePhonétique(90):28–30.JSTOR 44705217. ^InternationalPhoneticAssociation(1993)."CouncilactionsonrevisionsoftheIPA".JournaloftheInternationalPhoneticAssociation.23(1):32–34.doi:10.1017/S002510030000476X. ^InternationalPhoneticAssociation(1949).ThePrinciplesoftheInternationalPhoneticAssociation.DepartmentofPhonetics,UniversityCollege,London.SupplementtoLeMaîtrePhonétique91,January–June1949.JSTOR i40200179.ReprintedinJournaloftheInternationalPhoneticAssociation40(3),December2010,pp. 299–358,doi:10.1017/S0025100311000089.CS1maint:postscript(link) ^Wells,JohnC.(6November2006)."ScenesfromIPAhistory".JohnWells'sphoneticblog.DepartmentofPhoneticsandLinguistics,UniversityCollegeLondon. ^InternationalPhoneticAssociation(1999),p. 19. ^Esling,JohnH.(2010)."PhoneticNotation".InHardcastle,WilliamJ.;Laver,John;Gibbon,FionaE.(eds.).TheHandbookofPhoneticSciences(2nd ed.).Wiley-Blackwell.pp. 678–702.doi:10.1002/9781444317251.ch18.ISBN 978-1-4051-4590-9.pp. 688,693. ^MartinJ.Ball;JoanRahilly(August2011)."ThesymbolizationofcentralapproximantsintheIPA".JournaloftheInternationalPhoneticAssociation.CambridgeJournalsOnline.41(2):231–237.doi:10.1017/s0025100311000107.S2CID 144408497. ^"CambridgeJournalsOnline–JournaloftheInternationalPhoneticAssociationVol.39Iss.02".Journals.cambridge.org.23October2012.Retrieved20November2012. ^"IPA:Aboutus".Langsci.ucl.ac.uk.Archivedfromtheoriginalon10October2012.Retrieved20November2012. ^"IPA:Statutes".Langsci.ucl.ac.uk.Archivedfromtheoriginalon10October2012.Retrieved20November2012. ^"IPA:News".Langsci.ucl.ac.uk.Archivedfromtheoriginalon11November2012.Retrieved20November2012. ^"IPA:News".Langsci.ucl.ac.uk.Archivedfromtheoriginalon11November2012.Retrieved20November2012. ^See"IllustrationsoftheIPA"forindividuallanguagesintheIPAHandbook(1999),whichforexamplemayuse⟨/c/⟩asaphonemicsymbolforwhatisphoneticallyrealizedas[tʃ],aswellassuperscriptIPAlettersthathavenoofficialsuperscriptform. ^abcdKirkMiller&MichaelAshby,L2/20-252RUnicoderequestforIPAmodifier-letters(a),pulmonic ^abSallyThomason(2January2008)."WhyIDon'tLovetheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet".LanguageLog. ^"Phonetics".CambridgeDictionariesOnline.2002.Retrieved11March2007. ^"Merriam-WebsterOnlinePronunciationSymbols".Archivedfromtheoriginalon1June2007.Retrieved4June2007.Agnes,Michael(1999).Webster'sNewWorldCollegeDictionary.NewYork:Macmillan.xxiii.ISBN 0-02-863119-6.PronunciationrespellingforEnglishhasdetailedcomparisons. ^MonolingualHebrewdictionariesusepronunciationrespellingforwordswithunusualspelling;forexample,theEven-ShoshanDictionaryrespellsתָּכְנִית‎asתּוֹכְנִית‎becausethisworduseskamatzkatan. ^Forexample,SergeyOzhegov'sdictionaryaddsнэ́inbracketsfortheFrenchwordпенсне(pince-nez)toindicatethatthefinalеdoesnotiotatetheprecedingн. ^(inCzech)Fronek,J.(2006).Velkýanglicko-českýslovník(inCzech).Praha:Leda.ISBN 80-7335-022-X.Inaccordancewithlong-establishedCzechlexicographicaltradition,amodifiedversionoftheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA)isadoptedinwhichlettersoftheCzechalphabetareemployed. ^PrinciplesoftheInternationalPhoneticAssociation,1949:17. ^Severens,SaraE.(2017)."TheEffectsoftheInternationalPhoneticAlphabetinSinging".StudentScholarShowcase. ^"NicoCastel'sCompleteLibrettiSeries".CastelOperaArts.Retrieved29September2008. ^Cheek,Timothy(2001).SinginginCzech.TheScarecrowPress.p. 392.ISBN 978-0-8108-4003-4.Archivedfromtheoriginalon7October2011.Retrieved25January2020. ^Zimmer,Benjamin(14May2008)."OperaticIPAandtheVisualThesaurus".LanguageLog.UniversityofPennsylvania.Retrieved29September2009. ^"Segmentscanusefullybedividedintotwomajorcategories,consonantsandvowels."(InternationalPhoneticAssociation,Handbook,p. 3) ^InternationalPhoneticAssociation,Handbook,p. 6. ^"forpresentationalconvenience[...]becauseof[their]rarityandthesmallnumberoftypesofsoundswhicharefoundthere."(IPAHandbook,p18) ^Fromkin,Victoria;Rodman,Robert(1998)[1974].AnIntroductiontoLanguage(6th ed.).FortWorth,TX:HarcourtBraceCollegePublishers.ISBN 0-03-018682-X. ^LadefogedandMaddieson,1996,SoundsoftheWorld'sLanguages,§2.1. ^LadefogedandMaddieson,1996,SoundsoftheWorld'sLanguages,§9.3. ^Esling(2010),pp. 688–9. ^AmandaL.Milleretal.,"DifferencesinairstreamandposteriorplaceofarticulationamongNǀuulingualstops".SubmittedtotheJournaloftheInternationalPhoneticAssociation.Retrieved27May2007. ^"PhoneticanalysisofAfrikaans,English,XhosaandZuluusingSouthAfricanspeechdatabases".Ajol.info.Retrieved20November2012.Itistraditionaltoplacethetiebarabovetheletters.Itmaybeplacedbelowtoavoidoverlapwithascendersordiacriticmarks,orsimplybecauseitismorelegiblethatway,asinNiesler,Louw,&Roux(2005) ^Ladefoged,Peter;IanMaddieson(1996).Thesoundsoftheworld'slanguages.Oxford:Blackwell.pp. 329–330.ISBN 0-631-19815-6. ^InternationalPhoneticAssociation,Handbook,p. 10. ^abInternationalPhoneticAssociation,Handbook,pp. 14–15. ^'Furtherreportonthe1989KielConvention',JournaloftheInternationalPhoneticAssociation20:2(December1990),p.23. ^InternationalPhoneticAssociation,Handbook,p. 13. ^Cf.the/ʷ.../and/ʲ.../transcriptionsinEszterErnst-Kurdi(2017)ThePhonologyofMada,SILYaoundé. ^E.g.AaronDolgopolsky(2013)Indo-EuropeanDictionarywithNostraticEtymologies. ^TheIPAHandbookvariouslydefinesthe"linking"symbolasmarkingthe"lackofaboundary"(p.23)or"absenceofabreak"(p.174),andgivesFrenchliaisonandEnglishlinkingrasexamples.TheillustrationforCroatianusesittotieatoniccliticstotonicwords,withnoresultingchangeinimpliedsyllablestructure.Itisalsosometimesusedsimplytoindicatethattheconsonantendingonewordformsasyllablewiththevowelbeginningthefollowingword. ^abTheglobalriseandfallarrowscomebeforetheaffectedsyllableorprosodicunit,likestressandupstep/downstep.ThiscontrastswiththeChaotoneletters(listedbelow),whichmostcommonlycomeafter.Onewilloccasionallyseeahorizontalarrow⟨→⟩forgloballevelpitch(onlydroppingduetodowndrift),e.g.inJulieBarbour(2012)AGrammarofNeverver. ^Whenpitchistranscribedwithdiacritics,thethreepitches⟨éēè⟩aretakenasthebasiclevelsandarecalled'high','mid'and'low'.Contourtonescombineonlythesethreeandarecalled⟨e᷇⟩'high-mid'etc.Themoreextremepitches,whichdonotformcontours,are⟨e̋⟩'extra-high'and⟨ȅ⟩'extra-low',usingdoubleddiacritics.Whentranscribedwithtoneletters,however,combinationsofallfivelevelsarepossible.Thus,⟨e˥e˧e˩⟩maybecalled'high','mid'and'low',with⟨e˦e˨⟩being'near-high'and'near-low',analogoustodescriptionsofvowelheight.Inathree-leveltranscription,⟨éēè⟩areidentifiedwith⟨e˥e˧e˩⟩(JIPA19.2:76). ^abcdP.J.Roach,Reportonthe1989KielConvention,JournaloftheInternationalPhoneticAssociation,Vol.19,No.2(December1989),p.75–76 ^Esling(2010),p. 691. ^Forexample,"Balearic".Merriam-WebsterDictionary.. ^Ž.V.Ganiev(2012)Sovremennyjruskijjazyk.Flinta/Nauka. ^NicholasEvans(1995)AGrammarofKayardild.MoutondeGruyter. ^IanMaddieson(December1990)ThetranscriptionoftoneintheIPA,JIPA20.2,p.31. ^BarryHeselwood(2013)PhoneticTranscriptioninTheoryandPractice.EdinburghUniversityPress.Page7. ^Maddiesonandothershavenotedthataphonemic/phoneticdistinctionshouldbehandledby/slash/or[bracket]delimiters.However,thereversedtonelettersremaininusefortonesandhi. ^Awork-aroundfordiacriticssometimesseenwhenalanguagehasmorethanonephonemicrisingorfallingtone,andtheauthorwishestoavoidthepoorlylegiblediacriticse᷄,e᷅,e᷇,e᷆butdoesnotwishtoemploytoneletters,istorestrictgenericrisingěandfallingêtothehigher-pitchedoftherisingandfallingtones,saye˥˧ande˧˥,andtoresurrectretired(pre-Kiel)IPAsubscriptdiacriticse̗ande̖forthelower-pitchedrisingandfallingtones,saye˩˧ande˧˩.Whenalanguagehasfourorsixleveltones,thetwomidtonesaresometimestranscribedashigh-mide̍(non-standard)andlow-midē.Non-standarde̍isoccasionallyseencombinedwithacuteandgravediacritcsorthemacron. ^abChao,Yuen-Ren(1930),"əsistiməv"toun-letəz""[Asystemof"tone-letters"],LeMaîtrePhonétique,30:24–27,JSTOR 44704341 ^SeeforexamplePeMaungTin[-phe-maʊ̃-tɪ̃ː](1924)bɜˑmiːz.LeMaîtrePhonétique,vol.2(39),no.5,pp.4–5,wherefivepitchlevelsaredistinguished ^Handbook,p.14. ^Theexamplehaschangedovertheyears.Inthechartincludedinthe1999IPAHandbook,itwas[˦˥˦],andsincethe2018revisionofthechartithasbeen[˧˦˨]. ^Chaodidnotincludetoneshapessuchas[˨˦˦],[˧˩˩],whichriseorfallandthenleveloff(orviceversa).Suchtoneshapesare,however,frequentlyencounteredinthemodernliterature. ^InChao'sSinologicalconvention,single˥isusedforahightoneonacheckedsyllable,versusdouble˥˥forhightoneonanopensyllable. ^abKelly&Local(1989)DoingPhonology,ManchesterUniversityPress. ^Bloomfield(1933)Languagep.91 ^Passy,1958,Conversationsfrançaisesentranscriptionphonétique.2nded. ^YuenRenChao(1968)LanguageandSymbolicSystems,p.xxiii ^GeoffreyBarker(2005)IntonationPatternsinTyroleanGerman,p.11. ^Ladefoged,Peter;Maddieson,Ian(1996).TheSoundsoftheWorld'sLanguages.Oxford:Blackwell.p. 314.ISBN 978-0-631-19815-4. ^Sometimestheobsoletetranscription⟨kʻ⟩(withaturnedapostrophe)vs.⟨kʰ⟩isstillseen. ^PeterLadefoged(1971)PreliminariesofLinguisticPhonetics,p.35. ^Fallon(2013)TheSynchronicandDiachronicPhonologyofEjectives,p.267 ^Heselwood(2013)PhoneticTranscriptioninTheoryandPractice,p.233. ^E.g.inLaver(1994)PrinciplesofPhonetics,pp.559–560 ^HeinvanderVoort(2005)'KwazainaComparativePerspective',IJAL71:4. ^JohnEsling(2010)"PhoneticNotation",inHardcastle,Laver&Gibbon(eds)TheHandbookofPhoneticSciences,2nded.,p695. ^Ridouane,Rachid(August2014)."TashlhiytBerber".JournaloftheInternationalPhoneticAssociation.44(2):207–221.doi:10.1017/S0025100313000388.S2CID 232344118.Retrieved20November2021. ^Alderete,John;Jebbour,Abdelkrim;Kachoub,Bouchra;Wilbee,Holly."TashlhiytBerbergrammarsynopsis"(PDF).SimonFraserUniversity.Retrieved20November2021. ^abKirkMiller&MichaelAshby,L2/20-253RUnicoderequestforIPAmodifierletters(b),non-pulmonic. ^KirkMiller&MartinBall,L2/20-116RExpansionoftheextIPAandVoQS. ^"JohnWells'sphoneticblog".Phonetic-blog.blogspot.com.9September2009.Retrieved18October2010. ^Themotivationforthismayvary.Someauthorsfindthetiebarsdispleasingbutthelackoftiebarsconfusing(i.e.⟨č⟩for/t͡ʃ/asdistinctfrom/tʃ/),whileotherssimplyprefertohaveoneletterforeachsegmentalphonemeinalanguage.[citationneeded] ^"Atthe1989KielConventionoftheIPA,asub-groupwasestablishedtodrawuprecommendationsforthetranscriptionofdisorderedspeech."("ExtensionstotheIPA:AnExtIPAChart"inInternationalPhoneticAssociation,Handbook,p. 186.) ^PRDSGroup(1983).ThePhoneticRepresentationofDisorderedSpeech.London:TheKing'sFund. ^"ExtensionstotheIPA:AnExtIPAChart"inInternationalPhoneticAssociation,Handbook,pp. 186–187. ^e.g.AlanKaye(2007)MorphologiesofAsiaandAfrica.Eisenbrauns. ^Haynie,Bowern,Epps,Hill&McConvell(2014)WanderwörterinlanguagesoftheAmericasandAustralia.Ampersand1:1–18. ^Perry(2000)Phonological/phoneticassessmentofanEnglish-speakingadultwithdysarthria ^AsinAfrasianistphoneticnotation.⟨S⟩isparticularlyambiguous.Ithasbeenusedfor'stop','fricative','sibilant','sonorant'and'semivowel'.Ontheotherhand,plosive/stopisfrequentlyabbreviated⟨P⟩,⟨T⟩or⟨S⟩.Theillustrationsgivenhereuse,asmuchaspossible,lettersthatarecapitalversionsofmembersofthesetstheystandfor:IPA[n]isanasalandNisanynasal;[p]isaplosive,[f]africative,[s]asibilant,[l]bothalateralandaliquid,[r]botharhoticandaresonant,and[ʞ]aclick.⟨¢⟩isanobstruentinAmericanistnotation,whereitstandsfor[ts].Analternativewildcardfor'glide',⟨J⟩,alsofitsthispattern,butismuchlesscommonthan⟨G⟩inEnglish-languagesources. ^Atleastinthenotationof⟨CRV-⟩syllables,the⟨R⟩isunderstoodtoincludeliquidsandglidesbuttoexcludenasals,asinBennett(2020:115)'ClickPhonology',inSands(ed.),ClickConsonants,Brill ^{Closevowel}mayinsteadbe⟨U⟩,and⟨O⟩maystandfor{obstruent}. ^Orglottal~pharyngeal,asinAfrasianistphoneticnotation ^ForotherTurkiclanguages,⟨I⟩mayberestrictedto{ɯi}(thatis,toıi),⟨U⟩touü,⟨A⟩toae/ä,etc. ^Laver(1994)PrinciplesofPhonetics,p.374. ^"Diacriticsmayalsobeemployedtocreatesymbolsforphonemes,thusreducingtheneedtocreatenewlettershapes."(InternationalPhoneticAssociation,Handbook,p. 27) ^Dedicatedlettershavebeenproposed,suchas⟨β⟩and⟨ð⟩.Ball,Rahilly&Lowry(2017)Phoneticsforspeechpathology,3rdedition,Equinox,Sheffield. ^Olson,KennethS.;Hajek,John(1999)."Thephoneticstatusofthelabialflap".JournaloftheInternationalPhoneticAssociation.29(2):101–114.doi:10.1017/s0025100300006484. ^"Thediacritics...canbeusedtomodifytheliportonguepositionimpliedbyavowelsymbol."(InternationalPhoneticAssociation,Handbook,p. 16) ^"...theInternationalPhoneticAssociationhasneverofficiallyapprovedasetofnames..."(InternationalPhoneticAssociation,Handbook,p. 31) ^AchartofIPAnumberscanbefoundontheIPAwebsite.IPAnumberchart ^"LanguageSubtagRegistry".IANA.5March2021.Retrieved30April2021. ^OnlineIPAkeyboardutilitieslikeIPAi-chartbytheAssociation,IPAcharacterpicker19atGitHub,TypeIt.org,andIPAChartkeyboardatGitHub. ^"Gboardupdatedwith63newlanguages,includingIPA(notthebeer)".AndroidPolice.18April2019.Retrieved28April2019. ^"SetupGboard–Android–GboardHelp".support.google.com.Retrieved28April2019. ^"IPAPhoneticKeyboard".AppStore.Retrieved8December2020. Furtherreading[edit] Ball,MartinJ.;JohnH.Esling;B.CraigDickson(1995)."TheVoQSsystemforthetranscriptionofvoicequality".JournaloftheInternationalPhoneticAssociation.25(2):71–80.doi:10.1017/S0025100300005181. Duckworth,M.;G.Allen;M.J.Ball(December1990)."ExtensionstotheInternationalPhoneticAlphabetforthetranscriptionofatypicalspeech".ClinicalLinguisticsandPhonetics.4(4):273–280.doi:10.3109/02699209008985489. Hill,KennethC.;Pullum,GeoffreyK.;Ladusaw,William(March1988)."ReviewofPhoneticSymbolGuidebyG.K.Pullum&W.Ladusaw".Language.64(1):143–144.doi:10.2307/414792.JSTOR 414792. InternationalPhoneticAssociation(1989)."Reportonthe1989Kielconvention".JournaloftheInternationalPhoneticAssociation.19(2):67–80.doi:10.1017/s0025100300003868. InternationalPhoneticAssociation(1999).HandbookoftheInternationalPhoneticAssociation:AguidetotheuseoftheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN 0-521-65236-7.(hb);ISBN 0-521-63751-1(pb). Jones,Daniel(1988).Englishpronouncingdictionary(revised14th ed.).London:Dent.ISBN 0-521-86230-2.OCLC 18415701. Ladefoged,Peter(September1990)."TherevisedInternationalPhoneticAlphabet".Language.66(3):550–552.doi:10.2307/414611.JSTOR 414611. Ladefoged,Peter;MorrisHalle(September1988)."SomemajorfeaturesoftheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet".Language.64(3):577–582.doi:10.2307/414533.JSTOR 414533. Laver,John(1994).PrinciplesofPhonetics.NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN 0-521-45031-4.(hb);ISBN 0-521-45655-X(pb). Pullum,GeoffreyK.;WilliamA.Ladusaw(1986).PhoneticSymbolGuide.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.ISBN 0-226-68532-2. Skinner,Edith;TimothyMonich;LileneMansell(1990).SpeakwithDistinction.NewYork:ApplauseTheatreBookPublishers.ISBN 1-55783-047-9. Fromkin,Victoria;Rodman,Robert;Hyams,Nina(2011).AnIntroductiontoLanguage(9th ed.).Boston:Wadsworth,CenageLearning.pp. 233–234.ISBN 978-1-4282-6392-5. Externallinks[edit] WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedtoInternationalPhoneticAlphabet. WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedtoInternationalPhoneticAlphabet. Officialwebsite InteractiveIPAchart vteInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(chart)IPAtopicsIPA InternationalPhoneticAssociation Historyofthealphabet Extensionsfordisorderedspeech(extIPA) VoiceQualitySymbols(VoQS) JournaloftheIPA(JIPA) Specialtopics Cursiveforms Casevariants Obsoleteandnonstandardsymbols Namingconventions Sinologicalextensions WorldOrthography IPAchartforEnglishdialects Encodings ASCIIencodings SAMPA X-SAMPA Kirshenbaum TIPA PhoneticsymbolsinUnicode IPABraille ConsonantsPulmonicconsonants Place→ Labial Coronal Dorsal Laryngeal Manner↓ Bi­labial Labio­dental Linguo­labial Dental Alveolar Post­alveolar Retro­flex Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyn­geal/epi­glottal Glottal Nasal m̥ m ɱ n̼ n̥ n ɳ̊ ɳ ɲ̊ ɲ ŋ̊ ŋ ɴ Plosive p b p̪ b̪ t̼ d̼ t d ʈ ɖ c ɟ k ɡ q ɢ ʡ ʔ Sibilantaffricate ts dz t̠ʃ d̠ʒ ʈʂ ɖʐ tɕ dʑ Non-sibilantaffricate pɸ bβ p̪f b̪v t̪θ d̪ð tɹ̝̊ dɹ̝ t̠ɹ̠̊˔ d̠ɹ̠˔ cç ɟʝ kx ɡɣ qχ ɢʁ ʡʢ ʔh Sibilantfricative s z ʃ ʒ ʂ ʐ ɕ ʑ Non-sibilantfricative ɸ β f v θ̼ ð̼ θ ð θ̠ ð̠ ɹ̠̊˔ ɹ̠˔ ɻ˔ ç ʝ x ɣ χ ʁ ħ ʕ h ɦ Approximant ʋ ɹ ɻ j ɰ ʔ̞ Tap/flap ⱱ̟ ⱱ ɾ̼ ɾ̥ ɾ ɽ̊ ɽ ɢ̆ ʡ̆ Trill ʙ̥ ʙ r̥ r ɽ̊r̥ ɽr ʀ̥ ʀ ʜ ʢ Lateralaffricate tɬ dɮ ʈɭ̊˔ ɖɭ˔ cʎ̝̊ ɟʎ̝ kʟ̝̊ ɡʟ̝ Lateralfricative ɬ ɮ ɭ̊˔ ɭ˔ ʎ̝̊ ʎ̝ ʟ̝̊ ʟ̝ Lateralapproximant l ɭ ʎ ʟ ʟ̠ Lateraltap/flap ɺ̥ ɺ ɭ̥̆ ɭ̆ ʎ̆ ʟ̆ IPAhelp  audio fullchart template Symbolstotherightinacellarevoiced,totheleftarevoiceless.Shadedareasdenotearticulationsjudgedimpossible. Non-pulmonicconsonants BL LD D A PA RF P V U EG Ejective Stop pʼ tʼ ʈʼ cʼ kʼ qʼ ʡʼ Affricate t̪θʼ tsʼ t̠ʃʼ ʈʂʼ kxʼ qχʼ Fricative ɸʼ fʼ θʼ sʼ ʃʼ ʂʼ ɕʼ xʼ χʼ Lateralaffricate tɬʼ cʎ̝̊ʼ kʟ̝̊ʼ Lateralfricative ɬʼ Click(top:velar;bottom:uvular) Tenuis kʘqʘ kǀqǀ kǃqǃ k‼q‼ kǂqǂ Voiced ɡʘɢʘ ɡǀɢǀ ɡǃɢǃ ɡ‼ɢ‼ ɡǂɢǂ Nasal ŋʘɴʘ ŋǀɴǀ ŋǃɴǃ ŋ‼ɴ‼ ŋǂɴǂ ʞ  Tenuislateral kǁqǁ Voicedlateral ɡǁɢǁ Nasallateral ŋǁɴǁ Implosive Voiced ɓ ɗ ᶑ ʄ ɠ ʛ Voiceless ɓ̥ ɗ̥ ᶑ̊ ʄ̊ ɠ̊ ʛ̥ IPAhelp fullchart template Co-articulatedconsonants Nasal n͡m Labial–alveolar ŋ͡m Labial–velar Plosive t͡pd͡b Labial–alveolar k͡pɡ͡b Labial–velar q͡ʡ Uvular–epiglottal Fricative/approximant ɥ̊ɥ Labial–palatal ʍw Labial–velar ɧ Sj-sound(variable) Lateralapproximant ɫ Velarizedalveolar IPAhelp fullchart template Other Nasallabial–velarapproximant[w̃] Nasalpalatalapproximant[j̃] Voicelessbidentalfricative[h̪͆] Voicelessbilabiallypost-trilleddentalstop[t̪ʙ̥] Voicelessnasalglottalapproximant[h̃] Vowels Front Central Back Close i y ɨ ʉ ɯ u Near-close ɪ ʏ ʊ Close-mid e ø ɘ ɵ ɤ o Mid e̞ ø̞ ə ɤ̞ o̞ Open-mid ɛ œ ɜ ɞ ʌ ɔ Near-open æ ɐ Open a ɶ ä ɑ ɒ IPAhelp  audio fullchart template Vowelsbesidedotsare:unrounded • rounded vtePhonologiesoftheworld'slanguagesA-E Abkhaz Acehnese Adyghe Afrikaans AmericanSignLanguage Arabic ModernStandard Egyptian Hejazi Levantine Tunisian Avestan Belarusian Bengali Bulgarian Burmese Catalan Chinese Mandarin Cantonese Old Historical Cornish Czech Danish Dutch Standard Kerkradedialect Orsmaal-Gussenhovendialect English Australian GeneralAmerican NewZealand ReceivedPronunciation RegionalNorthAmerican SouthAfrican StandardCanadian Old Middle Esperanto Estonian F-L Faroese Finnish French Parisian Quebec Galician German Standard Bernese Colognian Kerkradedialect Greek StandardModern Ancient Koine Gujarati Hawaiian Hebrew(Modern) Hindustani Hungarian Icelandic Inuit Irish Italian Japanese Kiowa Konkani Korean Kurdish Kyrgyz Latgalian Latin Latvian Lithuanian Luxembourgish M-S Macedonian Maithili Malay Maldivian Māori Marathi Massachusett Navajo Nepali Norwegian Occitan Ojibwe OldSaxon Oromo Ottawa Pashto Persian Polish Portuguese Proto-Indo-European Romanian Russian Sardinian Scots ScottishGaelic Serbo-Croatian Slovak Slovene Somali Sotho Spanish Dialectsandvarieties Swedish T-Z Tagalog Tamil Taos Turkish Ubykh Ukrainian UpperSorbian Uyghur Vietnamese Welsh WestFrisian Yiddish Zuni vteTypesofwritingsystemsOverview Historyofwriting Grapheme Lists Writingsystems undeciphered inventors constructed Languagesbywritingsystem/byfirstwrittenaccounts TypesAbjads Numerals Aramaic Hatran Arabic Egyptianhieroglyphs Hebrew Ashuri Cursive Rashi Solitreo Tifinagh Mandaic Manichaean Nabataean OldNorthArabian Pahlavi Pegon Phoenician Paleo-Hebrew Pitmanshorthand Proto-Sinaitic PsalterPahlavi Punic Samaritan SouthArabian Zabur Musnad Sogdian Syriac ʾEsṭrangēlā Serṭā Maḏnḥāyā TeelineShorthand Ugaritic AbugidasBrahmicNorthern Assamese Bengali Bhaiksuki Bhujimol Brāhmī Devanāgarī Dogri Gujarati Gupta 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