Consciousness - Wikipedia

Consciousness—The having of perceptions, thoughts, and feelings; awareness. The term is impossible to define except in terms that are unintelligible without a ... Consciousness FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Sentienceorawarenessofinternalorexternalexistence Thisarticleisaboutcognition.Forotheruses,seeConsciousness(disambiguation)andConscious(disambiguation). NottobeconfusedwithConscientiousnessorConscience. RepresentationofconsciousnessfromtheseventeenthcenturybyRobertFludd,anEnglishParacelsianphysician Consciousness,atitssimplest,issentienceorawarenessofinternalandexternalexistence.[1]Despitemillenniaofanalyses,definitions,explanationsanddebatesbyphilosophersandscientists,consciousnessremainspuzzlingandcontroversial,[2]being"atoncethemostfamiliarand[alsothe]mostmysteriousaspectofourlives".[3]Perhapstheonlywidelyagreednotionaboutthetopicistheintuitionthatitexists.[4]Opinionsdifferaboutwhatexactlyneedstobestudiedandexplainedasconsciousness.Sometimes,itissynonymouswiththemind,andatothertimes,anaspectofit.Inthepast,itwasone's"innerlife",theworldofintrospection,ofprivatethought,imaginationandvolition.[5]Today,itoftenincludessomekindofexperience,cognition,feelingorperception.Itmaybeawareness,awarenessofawareness,orself-awarenesseithercontinuouslychangingornot.[6][7]Theremightbedifferentlevelsorordersofconsciousness,[8]ordifferentkindsofconsciousness,orjustonekindwithdifferentfeatures.[9]Otherquestionsincludewhetheronlyhumansareconscious,allanimals,oreventhewholeuniverse.Thedisparaterangeofresearch,notionsandspeculationsraisesdoubtsaboutwhethertherightquestionsarebeingasked.[10] Examplesoftherangeofdescriptions,definitionsorexplanationsare:simplewakefulness,one'ssenseofselfhoodorsoulexploredby"lookingwithin";beingametaphorical"stream"ofcontents,orbeingamentalstate,mentaleventormentalprocessofthebrain;havingphaneraorqualiaandsubjectivity;beingthe'somethingthatitislike'to'have'or'be'it;beingthe"innertheatre"ortheexecutivecontrolsystemofthemind.[11] Contents 1Inter-disciplinaryperspectives 2Etymology 3Definitions 4Philosophyofmind 4.1Thecoherenceoftheconcept 4.2Typesofconsciousness 4.3Consciousnessinchildren 4.4Mind–bodyproblem 4.5Problemofotherminds 4.6Animalconsciousness 4.7Artifactconsciousness 5Scientificstudy 5.1Measurement 5.2Neuralcorrelates 5.3Biologicalfunctionandevolution 5.4Statesofconsciousness 5.5Phenomenology 5.6Entropicbrain 6Medicalaspects 6.1Assessment 6.2Disordersofconsciousness 6.3Anosognosia 7Streamofconsciousness 7.1Narrativeform 8Spiritualapproaches 9Seealso 10References 11Furtherreading 12Externallinks Inter-disciplinaryperspectives[edit] WesternphilosopherssincethetimeofDescartesandLockehavestruggledtocomprehendthenatureofconsciousnessandhowitfitsintoalargerpictureoftheworld.Theseissuesremaincentraltobothcontinentalandanalyticphilosophy,inphenomenologyandthephilosophyofmind,respectively.Somebasicquestionsinclude:whetherconsciousnessisthesamekindofthingasmatter;whetheritmayeverbepossibleforcomputingmachineslikecomputersorrobotstobeconscious;howconsciousnessrelatestolanguage;howconsciousnessasBeingrelatestotheworldofexperience;theroleoftheselfinexperience;whetherindividualthoughtispossibleatall;andwhethertheconceptisfundamentallycoherent. Recently,consciousnesshasalsobecomeasignificanttopicofinterdisciplinaryresearchincognitivescience,involvingfieldssuchaspsychology,linguistics,anthropology,[12]neuropsychologyandneuroscience.Theprimaryfocusisonunderstandingwhatitmeansbiologicallyandpsychologicallyforinformationtobepresentinconsciousness—thatis,ondeterminingtheneuralandpsychologicalcorrelatesofconsciousness.Themajorityofexperimentalstudiesassessconsciousnessinhumansbyaskingsubjectsforaverbalreportoftheirexperiences(e.g.,"tellmeifyounoticeanythingwhenIdothis").Issuesofinterestincludephenomenasuchassubliminalperception,blindsight,denialofimpairment,andalteredstatesofconsciousnessproducedbyalcoholandotherdrugs,orspiritualormeditativetechniques. Inmedicine,consciousnessisassessedbyobservingapatient'sarousalandresponsiveness,andcanbeseenasacontinuumofstatesrangingfromfullalertnessandcomprehension,throughdisorientation,delirium,lossofmeaningfulcommunication,andfinallylossofmovementinresponsetopainfulstimuli.[13]Issuesofpracticalconcernincludehowthepresenceofconsciousnesscanbeassessedinseverelyill,comatose,oranesthetizedpeople,andhowtotreatconditionsinwhichconsciousnessisimpairedordisrupted.[14]ThedegreeofconsciousnessismeasuredbystandardizedbehaviorobservationscalessuchastheGlasgowComaScale. Etymology[edit] JohnLocke,BritishEnlightenmentphilosopherfromthe17thcentury Inthelate20thcentury,philosopherslikeHamlyn,Rorty,andWilkeshavedisagreedwithKahn,HardieandModrakastowhetherAristotleevenhadaconceptofconsciousness.Aristotledoesnotuseanysinglewordorterminologytonamethephenomena;itisusedonlymuchlater,especiallybyJohnLocke.CastoncontendsthatforAristotle,perceptualawarenesswassomewhatthesameaswhatmodernphilosopherscallconsciousness.[15] TheoriginofthemodernconceptofconsciousnessisoftenattributedtoLocke'sEssayConcerningHumanUnderstanding,publishedin1690.[16]Lockedefinedconsciousnessas"theperceptionofwhatpassesinaman'sownmind".[17]Hisessayinfluencedthe18th-centuryviewofconsciousness,andhisdefinitionappearedinSamuelJohnson'scelebratedDictionary(1755).[18] "Consciousness"(French:conscience)isalsodefinedinthe1753volumeofDiderotandd'Alembert'sEncyclopédie,as"theopinionorinternalfeelingthatweourselveshavefromwhatwedo".[19] TheearliestEnglishlanguageusesof"conscious"and"consciousness"dateback,however,tothe1500s.TheEnglishword"conscious"originallyderivedfromtheLatinconscius(con-"together"andscio"toknow"),buttheLatinworddidnothavethesamemeaningastheEnglishword—itmeant"knowingwith",inotherwords,"havingjointorcommonknowledgewithanother".[20]Therewere,however,manyoccurrencesinLatinwritingsofthephraseconsciussibi,whichtranslatesliterallyas"knowingwithoneself",orinotherwords"sharingknowledgewithoneselfaboutsomething".Thisphrasehadthefigurativemeaningof"knowingthatoneknows",asthemodernEnglishword"conscious"does.Initsearliestusesinthe1500s,theEnglishword"conscious"retainedthemeaningoftheLatinconscius.Forexample,ThomasHobbesinLeviathanwrote:"Wheretwo,ormoremen,knowofoneandthesamefact,theyaresaidtobeConsciousofitonetoanother."[21]TheLatinphraseconsciussibi,whosemeaningwasmorecloselyrelatedtothecurrentconceptofconsciousness,wasrenderedinEnglishas"conscioustooneself"or"consciousuntooneself".Forexample,ArchbishopUssherwrotein1613of"beingsoconsciousuntomyselfofmygreatweakness".[22]Locke'sdefinitionfrom1690illustratesthatagradualshiftinmeaninghadtakenplace. Arelatedwordwasconscientia,whichprimarilymeansmoralconscience.Intheliteralsense,"conscientia"meansknowledge-with,thatis,sharedknowledge.ThewordfirstappearsinLatinjuridicaltextsbywriterssuchasCicero.[23]Here,conscientiaistheknowledgethatawitnesshasofthedeedofsomeoneelse.[24]RenéDescartes(1596–1650)isgenerallytakentobethefirstphilosophertouseconscientiainawaythatdoesnotfitthistraditionalmeaning.[25]Descartesusedconscientiathewaymodernspeakerswoulduse"conscience".InSearchafterTruth(Regulæaddirectionemingeniiutetinquisitioveritatisperlumennaturale,Amsterdam1701)hesays"conscienceorinternaltestimony"(conscientiâ,velinternotestimonio).[26][27] Definitions[edit] Thedictionarydefinitionsofthewordconsciousnessextendthroughseveralcenturiesandreflectarangeofseeminglyrelatedmeanings,withsomedifferencesthathavebeencontroversial,suchasthedistinctionbetween'inwardawareness'and'perception'ofthephysicalworld,orthedistinctionbetween'conscious'and'unconscious',orthenotionofa"mentalentity"or"mentalactivity"thatisnotphysical. ThecommonusagedefinitionsofconsciousnessinWebster'sThirdNewInternationalDictionary(1966edition,Volume1,page482)areasfollows: awarenessorperceptionofaninwardpsychologicalorspiritualfact;intuitivelyperceivedknowledgeofsomethinginone'sinnerself inwardawarenessofanexternalobject,state,orfact concernedawareness;INTEREST,CONCERN—oftenusedwithanattributivenoun[e.g.classconsciousness] thestateoractivitythatischaracterizedbysensation,emotion,volition,orthought;mindinthebroadestpossiblesense;somethinginnaturethatisdistinguishedfromthephysical thetotalityinpsychologyofsensations,perceptions,ideas,attitudes,andfeelingsofwhichanindividualoragroupisawareatanygiventimeorwithinaparticulartimespan—compareSTREAMOFCONSCIOUSNESS wakinglife(asthattowhichonereturnsaftersleep,trance,fever)whereinallone'smentalpowershavereturned... thepartofmentallifeorpsychiccontentinpsychoanalysisthatisimmediatelyavailabletotheego—comparePRECONSCIOUS,UNCONSCIOUS TheCambridgeDictionarydefinesconsciousnessas"thestateofunderstandingandrealizingsomething."[28] TheOxfordLivingDictionarydefinesconsciousnessas"Thestateofbeingawareofandresponsivetoone'ssurroundings.","Aperson'sawarenessorperceptionofsomething."and"Thefactofawarenessbythemindofitselfandtheworld."[29] Philosophershaveattemptedtoclarifytechnicaldistinctionsbyusingajargonoftheirown.TheRoutledgeEncyclopediaofPhilosophyin1998definesconsciousnessasfollows: Consciousness—Philosophershaveusedtheterm'consciousness'forfourmaintopics:knowledgeingeneral,intentionality,introspection(andtheknowledgeitspecificallygenerates)andphenomenalexperience...Somethingwithinone'smindis'introspectivelyconscious'justincaseoneintrospectsit(orispoisedtodoso).Introspectionisoftenthoughttodeliverone'sprimaryknowledgeofone'smentallife.Anexperienceorothermentalentityis'phenomenallyconscious'justincasethereis'somethingitislike'foronetohaveit.Theclearestexamplesare:perceptualexperience,suchastastingsandseeings;bodily-sensationalexperiences,suchasthoseofpains,ticklesanditches;imaginativeexperiences,suchasthoseofone'sownactionsorperceptions;andstreamsofthought,asintheexperienceofthinking'inwords'or'inimages'.Introspectionandphenomenalityseemindependent,ordissociable,althoughthisiscontroversial.[30] Manyphilosophersandscientistshavebeenunhappyaboutthedifficultyofproducingadefinitionthatdoesnotinvolvecircularityorfuzziness.[31]InTheMacmillanDictionaryofPsychology(1989edition),StuartSutherlandexpressedaskepticalattitudemorethanadefinition: Consciousness—Thehavingofperceptions,thoughts,andfeelings;awareness.Thetermisimpossibletodefineexceptintermsthatareunintelligiblewithoutagraspofwhatconsciousnessmeans.Manyfallintothetrapofequatingconsciousnesswithself-consciousness—tobeconsciousitisonlynecessarytobeawareoftheexternalworld.Consciousnessisafascinatingbutelusivephenomenon:itisimpossibletospecifywhatitis,whatitdoes,orwhyithasevolved.Nothingworthreadinghasbeenwrittenonit.[31] AlByrd,theauthorofSuperhumanCreators,definesconsciousness,foranimals,humansandartificialagents,astheeffectofintegratingandfilteringmanydifferenttypesofaffordanceawareness;thatis,awarenessoftheactionpossibilitiesinanenvironment.Accordingtothisdefinition,allagentsthatcanperceiveandactonaffordancesareconscioustosomeextent. ApartisandefinitionsuchasSutherland'scanhugelyaffectresearchers'assumptionsandthedirectionoftheirwork: Ifawarenessoftheenvironment...isthecriterionofconsciousness,theneventheprotozoansareconscious.Ifawarenessofawarenessisrequired,thenitisdoubtfulwhetherthegreatapesandhumaninfantsareconscious.[32] Philosophyofmind[edit] Mostwritersonthephilosophyofconsciousnesshavebeenconcernedwithdefendingaparticularpointofview,andhaveorganizedtheirmaterialaccordingly.Forsurveys,themostcommonapproachistofollowahistoricalpathbyassociatingstanceswiththephilosopherswhoaremoststronglyassociatedwiththem,forexample,Descartes,Locke,Kant,etc.Analternativeistoorganizephilosophicalstancesaccordingtobasicissues. Thecoherenceoftheconcept[edit] Manyphilosophershavearguedthatconsciousnessisaunitaryconceptthatisunderstoodintuitivelybythemajorityofpeopleinspiteofthedifficultyindefiningit.[9]Others,though,havearguedthatthelevelofdisagreementaboutthemeaningofthewordindicatesthatiteithermeansdifferentthingstodifferentpeople(forinstance,theobjectiveversussubjectiveaspectsofconsciousness),orelseitencompassesavarietyofdistinctmeaningswithnosimpleelementincommon.[33] Philosophersdifferfromnon-philosophersintheirintuitionsaboutwhatconsciousnessis.[34]Whilemostpeoplehaveastrongintuitionfortheexistenceofwhattheyrefertoasconsciousness,[9]skepticsarguethatthisintuitionisfalse,eitherbecausetheconceptofconsciousnessisintrinsicallyincoherent,orbecauseourintuitionsaboutitarebasedinillusions.GilbertRyle,forexample,arguedthattraditionalunderstandingofconsciousnessdependsonaCartesiandualistoutlookthatimproperlydistinguishesbetweenmindandbody,orbetweenmindandworld.Heproposedthatwespeaknotofminds,bodies,andtheworld,butofindividuals,orpersons,actingintheworld.Thus,byspeakingof"consciousness"weendupmisleadingourselvesbythinkingthatthereisanysortofthingasconsciousnessseparatedfrombehavioralandlinguisticunderstandings.[35] Typesofconsciousness[edit] NedBlockarguedthatdiscussionsonconsciousnessoftenfailedtoproperlydistinguishphenomenal(P-consciousness)fromaccess(A-consciousness),thoughthesetermshadbeenusedbeforeBlock.[36]P-consciousness,accordingtoBlock,issimplyrawexperience:itismoving,coloredforms,sounds,sensations,emotionsandfeelingswithourbodiesandresponsesatthecenter.Theseexperiences,consideredindependentlyofanyimpactonbehavior,arecalledqualia.A-consciousness,ontheotherhand,isthephenomenonwherebyinformationinourmindsisaccessibleforverbalreport,reasoning,andthecontrolofbehavior.So,whenweperceive,informationaboutwhatweperceiveisaccessconscious;whenweintrospect,informationaboutourthoughtsisaccessconscious;whenweremember,informationaboutthepastisaccessconscious,andsoon.Althoughsomephilosophers,suchasDanielDennett,havedisputedthevalidityofthisdistinction,[37]othershavebroadlyacceptedit.DavidChalmershasarguedthatA-consciousnesscaninprinciplebeunderstoodinmechanisticterms,butthatunderstandingP-consciousnessismuchmorechallenging:hecallsthisthehardproblemofconsciousness.[38] SomephilosophersbelievethatBlock'stwotypesofconsciousnessarenottheendofthestory.WilliamLycan,forexample,arguedinhisbookConsciousnessandExperiencethatatleasteightclearlydistincttypesofconsciousnesscanbeidentified(organismconsciousness;controlconsciousness;consciousnessof;state/eventconsciousness;reportability;introspectiveconsciousness;subjectiveconsciousness;self-consciousness)—andthateventhislistomitsseveralmoreobscureforms.[39] ThereisalsodebateoverwhetherornotA-consciousnessandP-consciousnessalwayscoexistoriftheycanexistseparately.AlthoughP-consciousnesswithoutA-consciousnessismorewidelyaccepted,therehavebeensomehypotheticalexamplesofAwithoutP.Block,forinstance,suggeststhecaseofa"zombie"thatiscomputationallyidenticaltoapersonbutwithoutanysubjectivity.However,heremainssomewhatskepticalconcluding"Idon'tknowwhetherthereareanyactualcasesofA-consciousnesswithoutP-consciousness,butIhopeIhaveillustratedtheirconceptualpossibility."[40] Consciousnessinchildren[edit] Furtherinformation:Theoryofmind OftheeighttypesofconsciousnessintheLycanclassification,somearedetectableinuteroandothersdevelopyearsafterbirth.PsychologistandeducatorWilliamFoulkesstudiedchildren'sdreamsandconcludedthatpriortotheshiftincognitivematurationthathumansexperienceduringagesfivetoseven,[41]childrenlacktheLockeanconsciousnessthatLycanhadlabeled"introspectiveconsciousness"andthatFoulkeslabels"self-reflection."[42]Ina2020paper,KatherineNelsonandRobynFivushuse"autobiographicalconsciousness"tolabelessentiallythesamefaculty,andagreewithFoulkesonthetimingofthisfaculty'sacquisition.NelsonandFivushcontendthat"languageisthetoolbywhichhumanscreateanew,uniquelyhumanformofconsciousness,namely,autobiographicalconsciousness."[43]JulianJayneshadstakedoutthesepositionsdecadesearlier.[44][45]Citingthedevelopmentalstepsthatleadtheinfanttoautobiographicalconsciousness,NelsonandFivushpointtotheacquisitionof"theoryofmind,"callingtheoryofmind"necessaryforautobiographicalconsciousness"anddefiningitas"understandingdifferencesbetweenone'sownmindandothers'mindsintermsofbeliefs,desires,emotionsandthoughts."Theywrite,"Thehallmarkoftheoryofmind,theunderstandingoffalsebelief,occurs...atfivetosixyearsofage."[46] Mind–bodyproblem[edit] Mainarticle:Mind–bodyproblem IllustrationofdualismbyRenéDescartes.Inputsarepassedbythesensoryorganstothepinealglandandfromtheretotheimmaterialspirit. Mentalprocesses(suchasconsciousness)andphysicalprocesses(suchasbrainevents)seemtobecorrelated,howeverthespecificnatureoftheconnectionisunknown. ThefirstinfluentialphilosophertodiscussthisquestionspecificallywasDescartes,andtheanswerhegaveisknownasCartesiandualism.Descartesproposedthatconsciousnessresideswithinanimmaterialdomainhecalledrescogitans(therealmofthought),incontrasttothedomainofmaterialthings,whichhecalledresextensa(therealmofextension).[47]Hesuggestedthattheinteractionbetweenthesetwodomainsoccursinsidethebrain,perhapsinasmallmidlinestructurecalledthepinealgland.[48] AlthoughitiswidelyacceptedthatDescartesexplainedtheproblemcogently,fewlaterphilosophershavebeenhappywithhissolution,andhisideasaboutthepinealglandhaveespeciallybeenridiculed.[49]However,noalternativesolutionhasgainedgeneralacceptance.Proposedsolutionscanbedividedbroadlyintotwocategories:dualistsolutionsthatmaintainDescartes'rigiddistinctionbetweentherealmofconsciousnessandtherealmofmatterbutgivedifferentanswersforhowthetworealmsrelatetoeachother;andmonistsolutionsthatmaintainthatthereisreallyonlyonerealmofbeing,ofwhichconsciousnessandmatterarebothaspects.Eachofthesecategoriesitselfcontainsnumerousvariants.Thetwomaintypesofdualismaresubstancedualism(whichholdsthatthemindisformedofadistincttypeofsubstancenotgovernedbythelawsofphysics)andpropertydualism(whichholdsthatthelawsofphysicsareuniversallyvalidbutcannotbeusedtoexplainthemind).Thethreemaintypesofmonismarephysicalism(whichholdsthatthemindconsistsofmatterorganizedinaparticularway),idealism(whichholdsthatonlythoughtorexperiencetrulyexists,andmatterismerelyanillusion),andneutralmonism(whichholdsthatbothmindandmatterareaspectsofadistinctessencethatisitselfidenticaltoneitherofthem).Therearealso,however,alargenumberofidiosyncratictheoriesthatcannotcleanlybeassignedtoanyoftheseschoolsofthought.[50] SincethedawnofNewtoniansciencewithitsvisionofsimplemechanicalprinciplesgoverningtheentireuniverse,somephilosophershavebeentemptedbytheideathatconsciousnesscouldbeexplainedinpurelyphysicalterms.ThefirstinfluentialwritertoproposesuchanideaexplicitlywasJulienOffraydeLaMettrie,inhisbookManaMachine(L'hommemachine).Hisarguments,however,wereveryabstract.[51]Themostinfluentialmodernphysicaltheoriesofconsciousnessarebasedonpsychologyandneuroscience.TheoriesproposedbyneuroscientistssuchasGeraldEdelman[52]andAntonioDamasio,[53]andbyphilosopherssuchasDanielDennett,[54]seektoexplainconsciousnessintermsofneuraleventsoccurringwithinthebrain.Manyotherneuroscientists,suchasChristofKoch,[55]haveexploredtheneuralbasisofconsciousnesswithoutattemptingtoframeall-encompassingglobaltheories.Atthesametime,computerscientistsworkinginthefieldofartificialintelligencehavepursuedthegoalofcreatingdigitalcomputerprogramsthatcansimulateorembodyconsciousness.[56] Afewtheoreticalphysicistshavearguedthatclassicalphysicsisintrinsicallyincapableofexplainingtheholisticaspectsofconsciousness,butthatquantumtheorymayprovidethemissingingredients.Severaltheoristshavethereforeproposedquantummind(QM)theoriesofconsciousness.[57]NotabletheoriesfallingintothiscategoryincludetheholonomicbraintheoryofKarlPribramandDavidBohm,andtheOrch-ORtheoryformulatedbyStuartHameroffandRogerPenrose.SomeoftheseQMtheoriesofferdescriptionsofphenomenalconsciousness,aswellasQMinterpretationsofaccessconsciousness.Noneofthequantummechanicaltheorieshavebeenconfirmedbyexperiment.RecentpublicationsbyG.Guerreshi,J.Cia,S.Popescu,andH.Briegel[58]couldfalsifyproposalssuchasthoseofHameroff,whichrelyonquantumentanglementinprotein.Atthepresenttimemanyscientistsandphilosophersconsidertheargumentsforanimportantroleofquantumphenomenatobeunconvincing.[59] Apartfromthegeneralquestionofthe"hardproblem"ofconsciousness(whichis,roughlyspeaking,thequestionofhowmentalexperiencecanarisefromaphysicalbasis[60]),amorespecializedquestionishowtosquarethesubjectivenotionthatweareincontrolofourdecisions(atleastinsomesmallmeasure)withthecustomaryviewofcausalitythatsubsequenteventsarecausedbypriorevents.Thetopicoffreewillisthephilosophicalandscientificexaminationofthisconundrum. Problemofotherminds[edit] Mainarticle:Problemofotherminds Manyphilosophersconsiderexperiencetobetheessenceofconsciousness,andbelievethatexperiencecanonlyfullybeknownfromtheinside,subjectively.Butifconsciousnessissubjectiveandnotvisiblefromtheoutside,whydothevastmajorityofpeoplebelievethatotherpeopleareconscious,butrocksandtreesarenot?[61]Thisiscalledtheproblemofotherminds.[62]Itisparticularlyacuteforpeoplewhobelieveinthepossibilityofphilosophicalzombies,thatis,peoplewhothinkitispossibleinprincipletohaveanentitythatisphysicallyindistinguishablefromahumanbeingandbehaveslikeahumanbeingineverywaybutneverthelesslacksconsciousness.[63]RelatedissueshavealsobeenstudiedextensivelybyGregLittmannoftheUniversityofIllinois,[64]andbyColinAllen(aprofessoratIndianaUniversity)regardingtheliteratureandresearchstudyingartificialintelligenceinandroids.[65] Themostcommonlygivenansweristhatweattributeconsciousnesstootherpeoplebecauseweseethattheyresembleusinappearanceandbehavior;wereasonthatiftheylooklikeusandactlikeus,theymustbelikeusinotherways,includinghavingexperiencesofthesortthatwedo.[66]Thereare,however,avarietyofproblemswiththatexplanation.Foronething,itseemstoviolatetheprincipleofparsimony,bypostulatinganinvisibleentitythatisnotnecessarytoexplainwhatweobserve.[66]Somephilosophers,suchasDanielDennettinanessaytitledTheUnimaginedPreposterousnessofZombies,arguethatpeoplewhogivethisexplanationdonotreallyunderstandwhattheyaresaying.[67]Morebroadly,philosopherswhodonotacceptthepossibilityofzombiesgenerallybelievethatconsciousnessisreflectedinbehavior(includingverbalbehavior),andthatweattributeconsciousnessonthebasisofbehavior.Amorestraightforwardwayofsayingthisisthatweattributeexperiencestopeoplebecauseofwhattheycando,includingthefactthattheycantellusabouttheirexperiences.[68] Animalconsciousness[edit] Seealso:Animalconsciousness Thetopicofanimalconsciousnessisbesetbyanumberofdifficulties.Itposestheproblemofothermindsinanespeciallysevereform,becausenon-humananimals,lackingtheabilitytoexpresshumanlanguage,cannottellhumansabouttheirexperiences.[69]Also,itisdifficulttoreasonobjectivelyaboutthequestion,becauseadenialthatananimalisconsciousisoftentakentoimplythatitdoesnotfeel,itslifehasnovalue,andthatharmingitisnotmorallywrong.Descartes,forexample,hassometimesbeenblamedformistreatmentofanimalsduetothefactthathebelievedonlyhumanshaveanon-physicalmind.[70]Mostpeoplehaveastrongintuitionthatsomeanimals,suchascatsanddogs,areconscious,whileothers,suchasinsects,arenot;butthesourcesofthisintuitionarenotobvious,andareoftenbasedonpersonalinteractionswithpetsandotheranimalstheyhaveobserved.[69] ThomasNagelarguesthatwhileahumanmightbeabletoimaginewhatitisliketobeabatbytaking"thebat'spointofview",itwouldstillbeimpossible"toknowwhatitislikeforabattobeabat."(Townsend'sbig-earedbatpictured). Philosopherswhoconsidersubjectiveexperiencetheessenceofconsciousnessalsogenerallybelieve,asacorrelate,thattheexistenceandnatureofanimalconsciousnesscanneverrigorouslybeknown.ThomasNagelspelledoutthispointofviewinaninfluentialessaytitledWhatIsitLiketoBeaBat?.Hesaidthatanorganismisconscious"ifandonlyifthereissomethingthatitisliketobethatorganism—somethingitislikefortheorganism";andhearguedthatnomatterhowmuchweknowaboutananimal'sbrainandbehavior,wecanneverreallyputourselvesintothemindoftheanimalandexperienceitsworldinthewayitdoesitself.[71]Otherthinkers,suchasDouglasHofstadter,dismissthisargumentasincoherent.[72]Severalpsychologistsandethologistshavearguedfortheexistenceofanimalconsciousnessbydescribingarangeofbehaviorsthatappeartoshowanimalsholdingbeliefsaboutthingstheycannotdirectlyperceive—DonaldGriffin's2001bookAnimalMindsreviewsasubstantialportionoftheevidence.[73] OnJuly7,2012,eminentscientistsfromdifferentbranchesofneurosciencegatheredattheUniversityofCambridgetocelebratetheFrancisCrickMemorialConference,whichdealswithconsciousnessinhumansandpre-linguisticconsciousnessinnonhumananimals.Aftertheconference,theysignedinthepresenceofStephenHawking,the'CambridgeDeclarationonConsciousness',whichsummarizesthemostimportantfindingsofthesurvey: "Wedecidedtoreachaconsensusandmakeastatementdirectedtothepublicthatisnotscientific.It'sobvioustoeveryoneinthisroomthatanimalshaveconsciousness,butitisnotobvioustotherestoftheworld.ItisnotobvioustotherestoftheWesternworldortheFarEast.Itisnotobvioustothesociety."[74] "Convergentevidenceindicatesthatnon-humananimals...,includingallmammalsandbirds,andothercreatures,...havethenecessaryneuralsubstratesofconsciousnessandthecapacitytoexhibitintentionalbehaviors."[75] Artifactconsciousness[edit] Seealso:Artificialconsciousness Theideaofanartifactmadeconsciousisanancientthemeofmythology,appearingforexampleintheGreekmythofPygmalion,whocarvedastatuethatwasmagicallybroughttolife,andinmedievalJewishstoriesoftheGolem,amagicallyanimatedhomunculusbuiltofclay.[76]However,thepossibilityofactuallyconstructingaconsciousmachinewasprobablyfirstdiscussedbyAdaLovelace,inasetofnoteswrittenin1842abouttheAnalyticalEngineinventedbyCharlesBabbage,aprecursor(neverbuilt)tomodernelectroniccomputers.LovelacewasessentiallydismissiveoftheideathatamachinesuchastheAnalyticalEnginecouldthinkinahumanlikeway.Shewrote: ItisdesirabletoguardagainstthepossibilityofexaggeratedideasthatmightariseastothepowersoftheAnalyticalEngine. ...TheAnalyticalEnginehasnopretensionswhatevertooriginateanything.Itcandowhateverweknowhowtoorderittoperform.Itcanfollowanalysis;butithasnopowerofanticipatinganyanalyticalrelationsortruths.Itsprovinceistoassistusinmakingavailablewhatwearealreadyacquaintedwith.[77] Oneofthemostinfluentialcontributionstothisquestionwasanessaywrittenin1950bypioneeringcomputerscientistAlanTuring,titledComputingMachineryandIntelligence.Turingdisavowedanyinterestinterminology,sayingthateven"Canmachinesthink?"istooloadedwithspuriousconnotationstobemeaningful;butheproposedtoreplaceallsuchquestionswithaspecificoperationaltest,whichhasbecomeknownastheTuringtest.[78]Topassthetest,acomputermustbeabletoimitateahumanwellenoughtofoolinterrogators.InhisessayTuringdiscussedavarietyofpossibleobjections,andpresentedacounterargumenttoeachofthem.TheTuringtestiscommonlycitedindiscussionsofartificialintelligenceasaproposedcriterionformachineconsciousness;ithasprovokedagreatdealofphilosophicaldebate.Forexample,DanielDennettandDouglasHofstadterarguethatanythingcapableofpassingtheTuringtestisnecessarilyconscious,[79]whileDavidChalmersarguesthataphilosophicalzombiecouldpassthetest,yetfailtobeconscious.[80]Athirdgroupofscholarshavearguedthatwithtechnologicalgrowthoncemachinesbegintodisplayanysubstantialsignsofhuman-likebehaviorthenthedichotomy(ofhumanconsciousnesscomparedtohuman-likeconsciousness)becomespasséandissuesofmachineautonomybegintoprevailevenasobservedinitsnascentformwithincontemporaryindustryandtechnology.[64][65]JürgenSchmidhuberarguesthatconsciousnessissimplytheresultofcompression.[81]Asanagentseesrepresentationofitselfrecurringintheenvironment,thecompressionofthisrepresentationcanbecalledconsciousness. JohnSearleinDecember2005 Inalivelyexchangeoverwhathascometobereferredtoas"theChineseroomargument",JohnSearlesoughttorefutetheclaimofproponentsofwhathecalls"strongartificialintelligence(AI)"thatacomputerprogramcanbeconscious,thoughhedoesagreewithadvocatesof"weakAI"thatcomputerprogramscanbeformattedto"simulate"consciousstates.Hisownviewisthatconsciousnesshassubjective,first-personcausalpowersbybeingessentiallyintentionalduesimplytothewayhumanbrainsfunctionbiologically;consciouspersonscanperformcomputations,butconsciousnessisnotinherentlycomputationalthewaycomputerprogramsare.TomakeaTuringmachinethatspeaksChinese,SearleimaginesaroomwithonemonolingualEnglishspeaker(Searlehimself,infact),abookthatdesignatesacombinationofChinesesymbolstobeoutputpairedwithChinesesymbolinput,andboxesfilledwithChinesesymbols.Inthiscase,theEnglishspeakerisactingasacomputerandtherulebookasaprogram.Searlearguesthatwithsuchamachine,hewouldbeabletoprocesstheinputstooutputsperfectlywithouthavinganyunderstandingofChinese,norhavinganyideawhatthequestionsandanswerscouldpossiblymean.IftheexperimentweredoneinEnglish,sinceSearleknowsEnglish,hewouldbeabletotakequestionsandgiveanswerswithoutanyalgorithmsforEnglishquestions,andhewouldbeeffectivelyawareofwhatwasbeingsaidandthepurposesitmightserve.SearlewouldpasstheTuringtestofansweringthequestionsinbothlanguages,butheisonlyconsciousofwhatheisdoingwhenhespeaksEnglish.AnotherwayofputtingtheargumentistosaythatcomputerprogramscanpasstheTuringtestforprocessingthesyntaxofalanguage,butthatthesyntaxcannotleadtosemanticmeaninginthewaystrongAIadvocateshoped.[82][83] Intheliteratureconcerningartificialintelligence,Searle'sessayhasbeensecondonlytoTuring'sinthevolumeofdebateithasgenerated.[84]Searlehimselfwasvagueaboutwhatextraingredientsitwouldtaketomakeamachineconscious:allheproposedwasthatwhatwasneededwas"causalpowers"ofthesortthatthebrainhasandthatcomputerslack.Butotherthinkerssympathetictohisbasicargumenthavesuggestedthatthenecessary(thoughperhapsstillnotsufficient)extraconditionsmayincludetheabilitytopassnotjusttheverbalversionoftheTuringtest,buttheroboticversion,[85]whichrequiresgroundingtherobot'swordsintherobot'ssensorimotorcapacitytocategorizeandinteractwiththethingsintheworldthatitswordsareabout,Turing-indistinguishablyfromarealperson.Turing-scaleroboticsisanempiricalbranchofresearchonembodiedcognitionandsituatedcognition.[86] In2014,VictorArgonovhassuggestedanon-Turingtestformachineconsciousnessbasedonmachine'sabilitytoproducephilosophicaljudgments.[87]Hearguesthatadeterministicmachinemustberegardedasconsciousifitisabletoproducejudgmentsonallproblematicpropertiesofconsciousness(suchasqualiaorbinding)havingnoinnate(preloaded)philosophicalknowledgeontheseissues,nophilosophicaldiscussionswhilelearning,andnoinformationalmodelsofothercreaturesinitsmemory(suchmodelsmayimplicitlyorexplicitlycontainknowledgeaboutthesecreatures'consciousness).However,thistestcanbeusedonlytodetect,butnotrefutetheexistenceofconsciousness.Apositiveresultprovesthatmachineisconsciousbutanegativeresultprovesnothing.Forexample,absenceofphilosophicaljudgmentsmaybecausedbylackofthemachine'sintellect,notbyabsenceofconsciousness. Scientificstudy[edit] Formanydecades,consciousnessasaresearchtopicwasavoidedbythemajorityofmainstreamscientists,becauseofageneralfeelingthataphenomenondefinedinsubjectivetermscouldnotproperlybestudiedusingobjectiveexperimentalmethods.[88]In1975GeorgeMandlerpublishedaninfluentialpsychologicalstudywhichdistinguishedbetweenslow,serial,andlimitedconsciousprocessesandfast,parallelandextensiveunconsciousones.[89]TheScienceandReligionForum[90]1984annualconference,'FromArtificialIntelligencetoHumanConsciousness'identifiedthenatureofconsciousnessasamatterforinvestigation;DonaldMichiewasakeynotespeaker.Startinginthe1980s,anexpandingcommunityofneuroscientistsandpsychologistshaveassociatedthemselveswithafieldcalledConsciousnessStudies,givingrisetoastreamofexperimentalworkpublishedinbooks,[91]journalssuchasConsciousnessandCognition,FrontiersinConsciousnessResearch,Psyche,andtheJournalofConsciousnessStudies,alongwithregularconferencesorganizedbygroupssuchastheAssociationfortheScientificStudyofConsciousness[92]andtheSocietyforConsciousnessStudies. Modernmedicalandpsychologicalinvestigationsintoconsciousnessarebasedonpsychologicalexperiments(including,forexample,theinvestigationofprimingeffectsusingsubliminalstimuli),andoncasestudiesofalterationsinconsciousnessproducedbytrauma,illness,ordrugs.Broadlyviewed,scientificapproachesarebasedontwocoreconcepts.Thefirstidentifiesthecontentofconsciousnesswiththeexperiencesthatarereportedbyhumansubjects;thesecondmakesuseoftheconceptofconsciousnessthathasbeendevelopedbyneurologistsandothermedicalprofessionalswhodealwithpatientswhosebehaviorisimpaired.Ineithercase,theultimategoalsaretodeveloptechniquesforassessingconsciousnessobjectivelyinhumansaswellasotheranimals,andtounderstandtheneuralandpsychologicalmechanismsthatunderlieit.[55] Measurement[edit] TheNeckercube,anambiguousimage Experimentalresearchonconsciousnesspresentsspecialdifficulties,duetothelackofauniversallyacceptedoperationaldefinition.Inthemajorityofexperimentsthatarespecificallyaboutconsciousness,thesubjectsarehuman,andthecriterionusedisverbalreport:inotherwords,subjectsareaskedtodescribetheirexperiences,andtheirdescriptionsaretreatedasobservationsofthecontentsofconsciousness.[93]Forexample,subjectswhostarecontinuouslyataNeckercubeusuallyreportthattheyexperienceit"flipping"betweentwo3Dconfigurations,eventhoughthestimulusitselfremainsthesame.[94]Theobjectiveistounderstandtherelationshipbetweentheconsciousawarenessofstimuli(asindicatedbyverbalreport)andtheeffectsthestimulihaveonbrainactivityandbehavior.Inseveralparadigms,suchasthetechniqueofresponsepriming,thebehaviorofsubjectsisclearlyinfluencedbystimuliforwhichtheyreportnoawareness,andsuitableexperimentalmanipulationscanleadtoincreasingprimingeffectsdespitedecreasingprimeidentification(doubledissociation).[95] Verbalreportiswidelyconsideredtobethemostreliableindicatorofconsciousness,butitraisesanumberofissues.[96]Foronething,ifverbalreportsaretreatedasobservations,akintoobservationsinotherbranchesofscience,thenthepossibilityarisesthattheymaycontainerrors—butitisdifficulttomakesenseoftheideathatsubjectscouldbewrongabouttheirownexperiences,andevenmoredifficulttoseehowsuchanerrorcouldbedetected.[97]DanielDennetthasarguedforanapproachhecallsheterophenomenology,whichmeanstreatingverbalreportsasstoriesthatmayormaynotbetrue,buthisideasabouthowtodothishavenotbeenwidelyadopted.[98]Anotherissuewithverbalreportasacriterionisthatitrestrictsthefieldofstudytohumanswhohavelanguage:thisapproachcannotbeusedtostudyconsciousnessinotherspecies,pre-linguisticchildren,orpeoplewithtypesofbraindamagethatimpairlanguage.Asathirdissue,philosopherswhodisputethevalidityoftheTuringtestmayfeelthatitispossible,atleastinprinciple,forverbalreporttobedissociatedfromconsciousnessentirely:aphilosophicalzombiemaygivedetailedverbalreportsofawarenessintheabsenceofanygenuineawareness.[99] Althoughverbalreportisinpracticethe"goldstandard"forascribingconsciousness,itisnottheonlypossiblecriterion.[96]Inmedicine,consciousnessisassessedasacombinationofverbalbehavior,arousal,brainactivityandpurposefulmovement.Thelastthreeofthesecanbeusedasindicatorsofconsciousnesswhenverbalbehaviorisabsent.[100][101]Thescientificliteratureregardingtheneuralbasesofarousalandpurposefulmovementisveryextensive.Theirreliabilityasindicatorsofconsciousnessisdisputed,however,duetonumerousstudiesshowingthatalerthumansubjectscanbeinducedtobehavepurposefullyinavarietyofwaysinspiteofreportingacompletelackofawareness.[95]Studiesoftheneuroscienceoffreewillhavealsoshownthattheexperiencesthatpeoplereportwhentheybehavepurposefullysometimesdonotcorrespondtotheiractualbehaviorsortothepatternsofelectricalactivityrecordedfromtheirbrains.[102] Anotherapproachappliesspecificallytothestudyofself-awareness,thatis,theabilitytodistinguishoneselffromothers.Inthe1970sGordonGallupdevelopedanoperationaltestforself-awareness,knownasthemirrortest.Thetestexamineswhetheranimalsareabletodifferentiatebetweenseeingthemselvesinamirrorversusseeingotheranimals.Theclassicexampleinvolvesplacingaspotofcoloringontheskinorfurneartheindividual'sforeheadandseeingiftheyattempttoremoveitoratleasttouchthespot,thusindicatingthattheyrecognizethattheindividualtheyareseeinginthemirroristhemselves.[103]Humans(olderthan18months)andothergreatapes,bottlenosedolphins,killerwhales,pigeons,Europeanmagpiesandelephantshaveallbeenobservedtopassthistest.[104] Neuralcorrelates[edit] Schemaoftheneuralprocessesunderlyingconsciousness,fromChristofKoch Amajorpartofthescientificliteratureonconsciousnessconsistsofstudiesthatexaminetherelationshipbetweentheexperiencesreportedbysubjectsandtheactivitythatsimultaneouslytakesplaceintheirbrains—thatis,studiesoftheneuralcorrelatesofconsciousness.Thehopeistofindthatactivityinaparticularpartofthebrain,oraparticularpatternofglobalbrainactivity,whichwillbestronglypredictiveofconsciousawareness.Severalbrainimagingtechniques,suchasEEGandfMRI,havebeenusedforphysicalmeasuresofbrainactivityinthesestudies.[105] Anotherideathathasdrawnattentionforseveraldecadesisthatconsciousnessisassociatedwithhigh-frequency(gammaband)oscillationsinbrainactivity.Thisideaarosefromproposalsinthe1980s,byChristofvonderMalsburgandWolfSinger,thatgammaoscillationscouldsolvetheso-calledbindingproblem,bylinkinginformationrepresentedindifferentpartsofthebrainintoaunifiedexperience.[106]RodolfoLlinás,forexample,proposedthatconsciousnessresultsfromrecurrentthalamo-corticalresonancewherethespecificthalamocorticalsystems(content)andthenon-specific(centromedialthalamus)thalamocorticalsystems(context)interactinthegammabandfrequencyviasynchronousoscillations.[107] Anumberofstudieshaveshownthatactivityinprimarysensoryareasofthebrainisnotsufficienttoproduceconsciousness:itispossibleforsubjectstoreportalackofawarenessevenwhenareassuchastheprimaryvisualcortex(V1)showclearelectricalresponsestoastimulus.[108]Higherbrainareasareseenasmorepromising,especiallytheprefrontalcortex,whichisinvolvedinarangeofhighercognitivefunctionscollectivelyknownasexecutivefunctions.[109]Thereissubstantialevidencethata"top-down"flowofneuralactivity(i.e.,activitypropagatingfromthefrontalcortextosensoryareas)ismorepredictiveofconsciousawarenessthana"bottom-up"flowofactivity.[110]Theprefrontalcortexisnottheonlycandidatearea,however:studiesbyNikosLogothetisandhiscolleagueshaveshown,forexample,thatvisuallyresponsiveneuronsinpartsofthetemporallobereflectthevisualperceptioninthesituationwhenconflictingvisualimagesarepresentedtodifferenteyes(i.e.,bistableperceptsduringbinocularrivalry).[111]Furthermore,top-downfeedbackfromhighertolowervisualbrainareasmaybeweakerorabsentintheperipheralvisualfield,assuggestedbysomeexperimentaldataandtheoreticalarguments;[112]neverthelesshumanscanperceivevisualinputsintheperipheralvisualfieldarisingfrombottom-upV1neuralactivities.[112][113]Meanwhile,bottom-upV1activitiesforthecentralvisualfieldscanbevetoed,andthusmadeinvisibletoperception,bythetop-downfeedback,whenthesebottom-upsignalsareinconsistentwithbrain'sinternalmodelofthevisualworld.[112][113] Modulationofneuralresponsesmaycorrelatewithphenomenalexperiences.Incontrasttotherawelectricalresponsesthatdonotcorrelatewithconsciousness,themodulationoftheseresponsesbyotherstimulicorrelatessurprisinglywellwithanimportantaspectofconsciousness:namelywiththephenomenalexperienceofstimulusintensity(brightness,contrast).IntheresearchgroupofDankoNikolićithasbeenshownthatsomeofthechangesinthesubjectivelyperceivedbrightnesscorrelatedwiththemodulationoffiringrateswhileotherscorrelatedwiththemodulationofneuralsynchrony.[114]AnfMRIinvestigationsuggestedthatthesefindingswerestrictlylimitedtotheprimaryvisualareas.[115]Thisindicatesthat,intheprimaryvisualareas,changesinfiringratesandsynchronycanbeconsideredasneuralcorrelatesofqualia—atleastforsometypeofqualia. In2011,GrazianoandKastner[116]proposedthe"attentionschema"theoryofawareness.Inthattheory,specificcorticalareas,notablyinthesuperiortemporalsulcusandthetemporo-parietaljunction,areusedtobuildtheconstructofawarenessandattributeittootherpeople.Thesamecorticalmachineryisalsousedtoattributeawarenesstooneself.Damagetothesecorticalregionscanleadtodeficitsinconsciousnesssuchashemispatialneglect.Intheattentionschematheory,thevalueofexplainingthefeatureofawarenessandattributingittoapersonistogainausefulpredictivemodelofthatperson'sattentionalprocessing.Attentionisastyleofinformationprocessinginwhichabrainfocusesitsresourcesonalimitedsetofinterrelatedsignals.Awareness,inthistheory,isauseful,simplifiedschemathatrepresentsattentionalstates.TobeawareofXisexplainedbyconstructingamodelofone'sattentionalfocusonX. In2013,theperturbationalcomplexityindex(PCI)wasproposed,ameasureofthealgorithmiccomplexityoftheelectrophysiologicalresponseofthecortextotranscranialmagneticstimulation.Thismeasurewasshowntobehigherinindividualsthatareawake,inREMsleeporinalocked-instatethaninthosewhoareindeepsleeporinavegetativestate,[117]makingitpotentiallyusefulasaquantitativeassessmentofconsciousnessstates. Assumingthatnotonlyhumansbutevensomenon-mammalianspeciesareconscious,anumberofevolutionaryapproachestotheproblemofneuralcorrelatesofconsciousnessopenup.Forexample,assumingthatbirdsareconscious—acommonassumptionamongneuroscientistsandethologistsduetotheextensivecognitiverepertoireofbirds—therearecomparativeneuroanatomicalwaystovalidatesomeoftheprincipal,currentlycompeting,mammalianconsciousness–braintheories.Therationaleforsuchacomparativestudyisthattheavianbraindeviatesstructurallyfromthemammalianbrain.Sohowsimilararethey?Whathomologuescanbeidentified?ThegeneralconclusionfromthestudybyButler,etal.,[118]isthatsomeofthemajortheoriesforthemammalianbrain[119][120][121]alsoappeartobevalidfortheavianbrain.Thestructuresassumedtobecriticalforconsciousnessinmammalianbrainshavehomologouscounterpartsinavianbrains.ThusthemainportionsofthetheoriesofCrickandKoch,[119]EdelmanandTononi,[120]andCotterill[121]seemtobecompatiblewiththeassumptionthatbirdsareconscious.Edelmanalsodifferentiatesbetweenwhathecallsprimaryconsciousness(whichisatraitsharedbyhumansandnon-humananimals)andhigher-orderconsciousnessasitappearsinhumansalonealongwithhumanlanguagecapacity.[120]Certainaspectsofthethreetheories,however,seemlesseasytoapplytothehypothesisofavianconsciousness.Forinstance,thesuggestionbyCrickandKochthatlayer5neuronsofthemammalianbrainhaveaspecialrole,seemsdifficulttoapplytotheavianbrain,sincetheavianhomologueshaveadifferentmorphology.Likewise,thetheoryofEccles[122][123]seemsincompatible,sinceastructuralhomologue/analoguetothedendronhasnotbeenfoundinavianbrains.Theassumptionofanavianconsciousnessalsobringsthereptilianbrainintofocus.Thereasonisthestructuralcontinuitybetweenavianandreptilianbrains,meaningthatthephylogeneticoriginofconsciousnessmaybeearlierthansuggestedbymanyleadingneuroscientists. JoaquinFusterofUCLAhasadvocatedthepositionoftheimportanceoftheprefrontalcortexinhumans,alongwiththeareasofWernickeandBroca,asbeingofparticularimportancetothedevelopmentofhumanlanguagecapacitiesneuro-anatomicallynecessaryfortheemergenceofhigher-orderconsciousnessinhumans.[124] Biologicalfunctionandevolution[edit] Opinionsaredividedastowhereinbiologicalevolutionconsciousnessemergedandaboutwhetherornotconsciousnesshasanysurvivalvalue.Somearguethatconsciousnessisabyproductofevolution.Ithasbeenarguedthatconsciousnessemerged(i)exclusivelywiththefirsthumans,(ii)exclusivelywiththefirstmammals,(iii)independentlyinmammalsandbirds,or(iv)withthefirstreptiles.[125]OtherauthorsdatetheoriginsofconsciousnesstothefirstanimalswithnervoussystemsorearlyvertebratesintheCambrianover500millionyearsago.[126]DonaldGriffinsuggestsinhisbookAnimalMindsagradualevolutionofconsciousness.[73]Eachofthesescenariosraisesthequestionofthepossiblesurvivalvalueofconsciousness. ThomasHenryHuxleydefendsinanessaytitledOntheHypothesisthatAnimalsareAutomata,anditsHistoryanepiphenomenalisttheoryofconsciousnessaccordingtowhichconsciousnessisacausallyinerteffectofneuralactivity—"asthesteam-whistlewhichaccompaniestheworkofalocomotiveengineiswithoutinfluenceuponitsmachinery".[127]TothisWilliamJamesobjectsinhisessayAreWeAutomata?bystatinganevolutionaryargumentformind-braininteractionimplyingthatifthepreservationanddevelopmentofconsciousnessinthebiologicalevolutionisaresultofnaturalselection,itisplausiblethatconsciousnesshasnotonlybeeninfluencedbyneuralprocesses,buthashadasurvivalvalueitself;anditcouldonlyhavehadthisifithadbeenefficacious.[128][129]KarlPopperdevelopsinthebookTheSelfandItsBrainasimilarevolutionaryargument.[130] Regardingtheprimaryfunctionofconsciousprocessing,arecurringideainrecenttheoriesisthatphenomenalstatessomehowintegrateneuralactivitiesandinformation-processingthatwouldotherwisebeindependent.[131]Thishasbeencalledtheintegrationconsensus.AnotherexamplehasbeenproposedbyGeraldEdelmancalleddynamiccorehypothesiswhichputsemphasisonreentrantconnectionsthatreciprocallylinkareasofthebraininamassivelyparallelmanner.[132]Edelmanalsostressestheimportanceoftheevolutionaryemergenceofhigher-orderconsciousnessinhumansfromthehistoricallyoldertraitofprimaryconsciousnesswhichhumanssharewithnon-humananimals(seeNeuralcorrelatessectionabove).Thesetheoriesofintegrativefunctionpresentsolutionstotwoclassicproblemsassociatedwithconsciousness:differentiationandunity.Theyshowhowourconsciousexperiencecandiscriminatebetweenavirtuallyunlimitednumberofdifferentpossiblescenesanddetails(differentiation)becauseitintegratesthosedetailsfromoursensorysystems,whiletheintegrativenatureofconsciousnessinthisvieweasilyexplainshowourexperiencecanseemunifiedasonewholedespitealloftheseindividualparts.However,itremainsunspecifiedwhichkindsofinformationareintegratedinaconsciousmannerandwhichkindscanbeintegratedwithoutconsciousness.Norisitexplainedwhatspecificcausalroleconsciousintegrationplays,norwhythesamefunctionalitycannotbeachievedwithoutconsciousness.Obviouslynotallkindsofinformationarecapableofbeingdisseminatedconsciously(e.g.,neuralactivityrelatedtovegetativefunctions,reflexes,unconsciousmotorprograms,low-levelperceptualanalyses,etc.)andmanykindsofinformationcanbedisseminatedandcombinedwithotherkindswithoutconsciousness,asinintersensoryinteractionssuchastheventriloquismeffect.[133]Henceitremainsunclearwhyanyofitisconscious.Forareviewofthedifferencesbetweenconsciousandunconsciousintegrations,seethearticleofE.Morsella.[133] Asnotedearlier,evenamongwriterswhoconsiderconsciousnesstobeawell-definedthing,thereiswidespreaddisputeaboutwhichanimalsotherthanhumanscanbesaidtopossessit.[134]Edelmanhasdescribedthisdistinctionasthatofhumanspossessinghigher-orderconsciousnesswhilesharingthetraitofprimaryconsciousnesswithnon-humananimals(seepreviousparagraph).Thus,anyexaminationoftheevolutionofconsciousnessisfacedwithgreatdifficulties.Nevertheless,somewritershavearguedthatconsciousnesscanbeviewedfromthestandpointofevolutionarybiologyasanadaptationinthesenseofatraitthatincreasesfitness.[135]Inhisarticle"Evolutionofconsciousness",JohnEcclesarguedthatspecialanatomicalandphysicalpropertiesofthemammaliancerebralcortexgaverisetoconsciousness("[a]psychon...linkedto[a]dendronthroughquantumphysics").[136]BernardBaarsproposedthatonceinplace,this"recursive"circuitrymayhaveprovidedabasisforthesubsequentdevelopmentofmanyofthefunctionsthatconsciousnessfacilitatesinhigherorganisms.[137]PeterCarruthershasputforthonesuchpotentialadaptiveadvantagegainedbyconsciouscreaturesbysuggestingthatconsciousnessallowsanindividualtomakedistinctionsbetweenappearanceandreality.[138]Thisabilitywouldenableacreaturetorecognizethelikelihoodthattheirperceptionsaredeceivingthem(e.g.thatwaterinthedistancemaybeamirage)andbehaveaccordingly,anditcouldalsofacilitatethemanipulationofothersbyrecognizinghowthingsappeartothemforbothcooperativeanddeviousends. Otherphilosophers,however,havesuggestedthatconsciousnesswouldnotbenecessaryforanyfunctionaladvantageinevolutionaryprocesses.[139][140]Noonehasgivenacausalexplanation,theyargue,ofwhyitwouldnotbepossibleforafunctionallyequivalentnon-consciousorganism(i.e.,aphilosophicalzombie)toachievetheverysamesurvivaladvantagesasaconsciousorganism.IfevolutionaryprocessesareblindtothedifferencebetweenfunctionFbeingperformedbyconsciousorganismOandnon-consciousorganismO*,itisunclearwhatadaptiveadvantageconsciousnesscouldprovide.[141]Asaresult,anexaptiveexplanationofconsciousnesshasgainedfavorwithsometheoriststhatpositconsciousnessdidnotevolveasanadaptationbutwasanexaptationarisingasaconsequenceofotherdevelopmentssuchasincreasesinbrainsizeorcorticalrearrangement.[126]Consciousnessinthissensehasbeencomparedtotheblindspotintheretinawhereitisnotanadaptionoftheretina,butinsteadjustaby-productofthewaytheretinalaxonswerewired.[142]SeveralscholarsincludingPinker,Chomsky,Edelman,andLuriahaveindicatedtheimportanceoftheemergenceofhumanlanguageasanimportantregulativemechanismoflearningandmemoryinthecontextofthedevelopmentofhigher-orderconsciousness(seeNeuralcorrelatessectionabove).Anotherideasuggestedwhereconsciousnessoriginatesfromacellthathasnestleditselfinabloodcapillaryinthebrainwherethebloodflowdetermineswhetherornotoneisconscious.[143] Statesofconsciousness[edit] ABuddhistmonkmeditating Therearesomebrainstatesinwhichconsciousnessseemstobeabsent,includingdreamlesssleep,coma,anddeath.Therearealsoavarietyofcircumstancesthatcanchangetherelationshipbetweenthemindandtheworldinlessdrasticways,producingwhatareknownasalteredstatesofconsciousness.Somealteredstatesoccurnaturally;otherscanbeproducedbydrugsorbraindamage.[144]Alteredstatescanbeaccompaniedbychangesinthinking,disturbancesinthesenseoftime,feelingsoflossofcontrol,changesinemotionalexpression,alternationsinbodyimageandchangesinmeaningorsignificance.[145] Thetwomostwidelyacceptedalteredstatesaresleepanddreaming.Althoughdreamsleepandnon-dreamsleepappearverysimilartoanoutsideobserver,eachisassociatedwithadistinctpatternofbrainactivity,metabolicactivity,andeyemovement;eachisalsoassociatedwithadistinctpatternofexperienceandcognition.Duringordinarynon-dreamsleep,peoplewhoareawakenedreportonlyvagueandsketchythoughts,andtheirexperiencesdonotcohereintoacontinuousnarrative.Duringdreamsleep,incontrast,peoplewhoareawakenedreportrichanddetailedexperiencesinwhicheventsformacontinuousprogression,whichmayhoweverbeinterruptedbybizarreorfantasticintrusions.[146][failedverification]Thoughtprocessesduringthedreamstatefrequentlyshowahighlevelofirrationality.Bothdreamandnon-dreamstatesareassociatedwithseveredisruptionofmemory:itusuallydisappearsinsecondsduringthenon-dreamstate,andinminutesafterawakeningfromadreamunlessactivelyrefreshed.[147] Researchconductedontheeffectsofpartialepilepticseizuresonconsciousnessfoundthatpatientswhohavepartialepilepticseizuresexperiencealteredstatesofconsciousness.[148][149]Inpartialepilepticseizures,consciousnessisimpairedorlostwhilesomeaspectsofconsciousness,oftenautomatedbehaviors,remainintact.Studiesfoundthatwhenmeasuringthequalitativefeaturesduringpartialepilepticseizures,patientsexhibitedanincreaseinarousalandbecameabsorbedintheexperienceoftheseizure,followedbydifficultyinfocusingandshiftingattention. Avarietyofpsychoactivedrugs,includingalcohol,havenotableeffectsonconsciousness.[150]Theserangefromasimpledullingofawarenessproducedbysedatives,toincreasesintheintensityofsensoryqualitiesproducedbystimulants,cannabis,empathogens–entactogenssuchasMDMA("Ecstasy"),ormostnotablybytheclassofdrugsknownaspsychedelics.[144]LSD,mescaline,psilocybin,dimethyltryptamine,andothersinthisgroupcanproducemajordistortionsofperception,includinghallucinations;someusersevendescribetheirdrug-inducedexperiencesasmysticalorspiritualinquality.Thebrainmechanismsunderlyingtheseeffectsarenotaswellunderstoodasthoseinducedbyuseofalcohol,[150]butthereissubstantialevidencethatalterationsinthebrainsystemthatusesthechemicalneurotransmitterserotoninplayanessentialrole.[151] Therehasbeensomeresearchintophysiologicalchangesinyogisandpeoplewhopractisevarioustechniquesofmeditation.Someresearchwithbrainwavesduringmeditationhasreporteddifferencesbetweenthosecorrespondingtoordinaryrelaxationandthosecorrespondingtomeditation.Ithasbeendisputed,however,whetherthereisenoughevidencetocounttheseasphysiologicallydistinctstatesofconsciousness.[152] ThemostextensivestudyofthecharacteristicsofalteredstatesofconsciousnesswasmadebypsychologistCharlesTartinthe1960sand1970s.Tartanalyzedastateofconsciousnessasmadeupofanumberofcomponentprocesses,includingexteroception(sensingtheexternalworld);interoception(sensingthebody);input-processing(seeingmeaning);emotions;memory;timesense;senseofidentity;evaluationandcognitiveprocessing;motoroutput;andinteractionwiththeenvironment.[153]Eachofthese,inhisview,couldbealteredinmultiplewaysbydrugsorothermanipulations.ThecomponentsthatTartidentifiedhavenot,however,beenvalidatedbyempiricalstudies.Researchinthisareahasnotyetreachedfirmconclusions,butarecentquestionnaire-basedstudyidentifiedelevensignificantfactorscontributingtodrug-inducedstatesofconsciousness:experienceofunity;spiritualexperience;blissfulstate;insightfulness;disembodiment;impairedcontrolandcognition;anxiety;compleximagery;elementaryimagery;audio-visualsynesthesia;andchangedmeaningofpercepts.[154] Phenomenology[edit] Phenomenologyisamethodofinquirythatattemptstoexaminethestructureofconsciousnessinitsownright,puttingasideproblemsregardingtherelationshipofconsciousnesstothephysicalworld.ThisapproachwasfirstproposedbythephilosopherEdmundHusserl,andlaterelaboratedbyotherphilosophersandscientists.[155]Husserl'soriginalconceptgaverisetotwodistinctlinesofinquiry,inphilosophyandpsychology.Inphilosophy,phenomenologyhaslargelybeendevotedtofundamentalmetaphysicalquestions,suchasthenatureofintentionality("aboutness").Inpsychology,phenomenologylargelyhasmeantattemptingtoinvestigateconsciousnessusingthemethodofintrospection,whichmeanslookingintoone'sownmindandreportingwhatoneobserves.Thismethodfellintodisreputeintheearlytwentiethcenturybecauseofgravedoubtsaboutitsreliability,buthasbeenrehabilitatedtosomedegree,especiallywhenusedincombinationwithtechniquesforexaminingbrainactivity.[156] Neoncolorspreadingeffect.Theapparentbluishtingeofthewhiteareasinsidethecircleisanillusion.Squareversionoftheneonspreadillusion Introspectively,theworldofconsciousexperienceseemstohaveconsiderablestructure.ImmanuelKantassertedthattheworldasweperceiveitisorganizedaccordingtoasetoffundamental"intuitions",whichinclude'object'(weperceivetheworldasasetofdistinctthings);'shape';'quality'(color,warmth,etc.);'space'(distance,direction,andlocation);and'time'.[157]Someoftheseconstructs,suchasspaceandtime,correspondtothewaytheworldisstructuredbythelawsofphysics;forothers,thecorrespondenceisnotasclear.Understandingthephysicalbasisofqualities,suchasrednessorpain,hasbeenparticularlychallenging.DavidChalmershascalledthisthehardproblemofconsciousness.[38]Somephilosophershavearguedthatitisintrinsicallyunsolvable,becausequalities("qualia")areineffable;thatis,theyare"rawfeels",incapableofbeinganalyzedintocomponentprocesses.[158]Otherpsychologistsandneuroscientistsrejectthesearguments.Forexample,researchonideasthesiashowsthatqualiaareorganisedintoasemantic-likenetwork.Nevertheless,itisclearthattherelationshipbetweenaphysicalentitysuchaslightandaperceptualqualitysuchascolorisextraordinarilycomplexandindirect,asdemonstratedbyavarietyofopticalillusionssuchasneoncolorspreading.[159] Inneuroscience,agreatdealofefforthasgoneintoinvestigatinghowtheperceivedworldofconsciousawarenessisconstructedinsidethebrain.Theprocessisgenerallythoughttoinvolvetwoprimarymechanisms:hierarchicalprocessingofsensoryinputs,andmemory.Signalsarisingfromsensoryorgansaretransmittedtothebrainandthenprocessedinaseriesofstages,whichextractmultipletypesofinformationfromtherawinput.Inthevisualsystem,forexample,sensorysignalsfromtheeyesaretransmittedtothethalamusandthentotheprimaryvisualcortex;insidethecerebralcortextheyaresenttoareasthatextractfeaturessuchasthree-dimensionalstructure,shape,color,andmotion.[160]Memorycomesintoplayinatleasttwoways.First,itallowssensoryinformationtobeevaluatedinthecontextofpreviousexperience.Second,andevenmoreimportantly,workingmemoryallowsinformationtobeintegratedovertimesothatitcangenerateastablerepresentationoftheworld—GeraldEdelmanexpressedthispointvividlybytitlingoneofhisbooksaboutconsciousnessTheRememberedPresent.[161]Incomputationalneuroscience,Bayesianapproachestobrainfunctionhavebeenusedtounderstandboththeevaluationofsensoryinformationinlightofpreviousexperience,andtheintegrationofinformationovertime.Bayesianmodelsofthebrainareprobabilisticinferencemodels,inwhichthebraintakesadvantageofpriorknowledgetointerpretuncertainsensoryinputsinordertoformulateaconsciouspercept;Bayesianmodelshavesuccessfullypredictedmanyperceptualphenomenainvisionandthenonvisualsenses.[162][163][164] Despitethelargeamountofinformationavailable,manyimportantaspectsofperceptionremainmysterious.Agreatdealisknownaboutlow-levelsignalprocessinginsensorysystems.However,howsensorysystems,actionsystems,andlanguagesystemsinteractarepoorlyunderstood.Atadeeperlevel,therearestillbasicconceptualissuesthatremainunresolved.[160]Manyscientistshavefounditdifficulttoreconcilethefactthatinformationisdistributedacrossmultiplebrainareaswiththeapparentunityofconsciousness:thisisoneaspectoftheso-calledbindingproblem.[165]Therearealsosomescientistswhohaveexpressedgravereservationsabouttheideathatthebrainformsrepresentationsoftheoutsideworldatall:influentialmembersofthisgroupincludepsychologistJ.J.GibsonandroboticistRodneyBrooks,whobotharguedinfavorof"intelligencewithoutrepresentation".[166] Entropicbrain[edit] Theentropicbrainisatheoryofconsciousstatesinformedbyneuroimagingresearchwithpsychedelicdrugs.Thetheorysuggeststhatthebraininprimarystatessuchasrapideyemovement(REM)sleep,earlypsychosisandundertheinfluenceofpsychedelicdrugs,isinadisorderedstate;normalwakingconsciousnessconstrainssomeofthisfreedomandmakespossiblemetacognitivefunctionssuchasinternalself-administeredrealitytestingandself-awareness.[167][168][169][170]Criticismhasincludedquestioningwhetherthetheoryhasbeenadequatelytested.[171] Medicalaspects[edit] Themedicalapproachtoconsciousnessispracticallyoriented.Itderivesfromaneedtotreatpeoplewhosebrainfunctionhasbeenimpairedasaresultofdisease,braindamage,toxins,ordrugs.Inmedicine,conceptualdistinctionsareconsideredusefultothedegreethattheycanhelptoguidetreatments.Whereasthephilosophicalapproachtoconsciousnessfocusesonitsfundamentalnatureanditscontents,themedicalapproachfocusesontheamountofconsciousnessapersonhas:inmedicine,consciousnessisassessedasa"level"rangingfromcomaandbraindeathatthelowend,tofullalertnessandpurposefulresponsivenessatthehighend.[172] Consciousnessisofconcerntopatientsandphysicians,especiallyneurologistsandanesthesiologists.Patientsmayhavedisordersofconsciousnessormayneedtobeanesthetizedforasurgicalprocedure.Physiciansmayperformconsciousness-relatedinterventionssuchasinstructingthepatienttosleep,administeringgeneralanesthesia,orinducingmedicalcoma.[172]Also,bioethicistsmaybeconcernedwiththeethicalimplicationsofconsciousnessinmedicalcasesofpatientssuchastheKarenAnnQuinlancase,[173]whileneuroscientistsmaystudypatientswithimpairedconsciousnessinhopesofgaininginformationabouthowthebrainworks.[174] Assessment[edit] Inmedicine,consciousnessisexaminedusingasetofproceduresknownasneuropsychologicalassessment.[100]Therearetwocommonlyusedmethodsforassessingthelevelofconsciousnessofapatient:asimpleprocedurethatrequiresminimaltraining,andamorecomplexprocedurethatrequiressubstantialexpertise.Thesimpleprocedurebeginsbyaskingwhetherthepatientisabletomoveandreacttophysicalstimuli.Ifso,thenextquestioniswhetherthepatientcanrespondinameaningfulwaytoquestionsandcommands.Ifso,thepatientisaskedforname,currentlocation,andcurrentdayandtime.Apatientwhocananswerallofthesequestionsissaidtobe"alertandorientedtimesfour"(sometimesdenoted"A&Ox4"onamedicalchart),andisusuallyconsideredfullyconscious.[175] Themorecomplexprocedureisknownasaneurologicalexamination,andisusuallycarriedoutbyaneurologistinahospitalsetting.Aformalneurologicalexaminationrunsthroughapreciselydelineatedseriesoftests,beginningwithtestsforbasicsensorimotorreflexes,andculminatingwithtestsforsophisticateduseoflanguage.TheoutcomemaybesummarizedusingtheGlasgowComaScale,whichyieldsanumberintherange3–15,withascoreof3to8indicatingcoma,and15indicatingfullconsciousness.TheGlasgowComaScalehasthreesubscales,measuringthebestmotorresponse(rangingfrom"nomotorresponse"to"obeyscommands"),thebesteyeresponse(rangingfrom"noeyeopening"to"eyesopeningspontaneously")andthebestverbalresponse(rangingfrom"noverbalresponse"to"fullyoriented").Thereisalsoasimplerpediatricversionofthescale,forchildrentooyoungtobeabletouselanguage.[172] In2013,anexperimentalprocedurewasdevelopedtomeasuredegreesofconsciousness,theprocedureinvolvingstimulatingthebrainwithamagneticpulse,measuringresultingwavesofelectricalactivity,anddevelopingaconsciousnessscorebasedonthecomplexityofthebrainactivity.[176] Disordersofconsciousness[edit] Medicalconditionsthatinhibitconsciousnessareconsidereddisordersofconsciousness.[177]Thiscategorygenerallyincludesminimallyconsciousstateandpersistentvegetativestate,butsometimesalsoincludesthelessseverelocked-insyndromeandmoreseverechroniccoma.[177][178]Differentialdiagnosisofthesedisordersisanactiveareaofbiomedicalresearch.[179][180][181]Finally,braindeathresultsinpossibleirreversibledisruptionofconsciousness.[177]Whileotherconditionsmaycauseamoderatedeterioration(e.g.,dementiaanddelirium)ortransientinterruption(e.g.,grandmalandpetitmalseizures)ofconsciousness,theyarenotincludedinthiscategory. Disorder Description Locked-insyndrome Thepatienthasawareness,sleep-wakecycles,andmeaningfulbehavior(viz.,eye-movement),butisisolatedduetoquadriplegiaandpseudobulbarpalsy. Minimallyconsciousstate Thepatienthasintermittentperiodsofawarenessandwakefulnessanddisplayssomemeaningfulbehavior. Persistentvegetativestate Thepatienthassleep-wakecycles,butlacksawarenessandonlydisplaysreflexiveandnon-purposefulbehavior. Chroniccoma Thepatientlacksawarenessandsleep-wakecyclesandonlydisplaysreflexivebehavior. Braindeath Thepatientlacksawareness,sleep-wakecycles,andbrain-mediatedreflexivebehavior. Anosognosia[edit] Mainarticle:Anosognosia Oneofthemoststrikingdisordersofconsciousnessgoesbythenameanosognosia,aGreek-derivedtermmeaning'unawarenessofdisease'.Thisisaconditioninwhichpatientsaredisabledinsomeway,mostcommonlyasaresultofastroke,buteithermisunderstandthenatureoftheproblemordenythatthereisanythingwrongwiththem.[182]Themostfrequentlyoccurringformisseeninpeoplewhohaveexperiencedastrokedamagingtheparietallobeintherighthemisphereofthebrain,givingrisetoasyndromeknownashemispatialneglect,characterizedbyaninabilitytodirectactionorattentiontowardobjectslocatedtotheleftwithrespecttotheirbodies.Patientswithhemispatialneglectareoftenparalyzedontherightsideofthebody,butsometimesdenybeingunabletomove.Whenquestionedabouttheobviousproblem,thepatientmayavoidgivingadirectanswer,ormaygiveanexplanationthatdoesn'tmakesense.Patientswithhemispatialneglectmayalsofailtorecognizeparalyzedpartsoftheirbodies:onefrequentlymentionedcaseisofamanwhorepeatedlytriedtothrowhisownparalyzedrightlegoutofthebedhewaslyingin,andwhenaskedwhathewasdoing,complainedthatsomebodyhadputadeadlegintothebedwithhim.AnevenmorestrikingtypeofanosognosiaisAnton–Babinskisyndrome,ararelyoccurringconditioninwhichpatientsbecomeblindbutclaimtobeabletoseenormally,andpersistinthisclaiminspiteofallevidencetothecontrary.[183] Streamofconsciousness[edit] Mainarticle:Streamofconsciousness(psychology) WilliamJamesisusuallycreditedwithpopularizingtheideathathumanconsciousnessflowslikeastream,inhisPrinciplesofPsychologyof1890. AccordingtoJames,the"streamofthought"isgovernedbyfivecharacteristics:[184] Everythoughttendstobepartofapersonalconsciousness. Withineachpersonalconsciousnessthoughtisalwayschanging. Withineachpersonalconsciousnessthoughtissensiblycontinuous. Italwaysappearstodealwithobjectsindependentofitself. Itisinterestedinsomepartsoftheseobjectstotheexclusionofothers". AsimilarconceptappearsinBuddhistphilosophy,expressedbytheSanskrittermCitta-saṃtāna,whichisusuallytranslatedasmindstreamor"mentalcontinuum".Buddhistteachingsdescribethatconsciousnessmanifestsmomenttomomentassenseimpressionsandmentalphenomenathatarecontinuouslychanging.[185]Theteachingslistsixtriggersthatcanresultinthegenerationofdifferentmentalevents.[185]Thesetriggersareinputfromthefivesenses(seeing,hearing,smelling,tastingortouchsensations),orathought(relatingtothepast,presentorthefuture)thathappentoariseinthemind.Thementaleventsgeneratedasaresultofthesetriggersare:feelings,perceptionsandintentions/behaviour.Themoment-by-momentmanifestationofthemind-streamissaidtohappenineverypersonallthetime.Itevenhappensinascientistwhoanalysesvariousphenomenaintheworld,oranalysesthematerialbodyincludingtheorganbrain.[185]Themanifestationofthemindstreamisalsodescribedasbeinginfluencedbyphysicallaws,biologicallaws,psychologicallaws,volitionallaws,anduniversallaws.[185]ThepurposeoftheBuddhistpracticeofmindfulnessistounderstandtheinherentnatureoftheconsciousnessanditscharacteristics.[186] Narrativeform[edit] IntheWest,theprimaryimpactoftheideahasbeenonliteratureratherthanscience:"streamofconsciousnessasanarrativemode"meanswritinginawaythatattemptstoportraythemoment-to-momentthoughtsandexperiencesofacharacter.ThistechniqueperhapshaditsbeginningsinthemonologuesofShakespeare'splaysandreacheditsfullestdevelopmentinthenovelsofJamesJoyceandVirginiaWoolf,althoughithasalsobeenusedbymanyothernotedwriters.[187] Here,forexample,isapassagefromJoyce'sUlyssesaboutthethoughtsofMollyBloom: YesbecauseheneverdidathinglikethatbeforeasasktogethisbreakfastinbedwithacoupleofeggssincetheCityArmshotelwhenheusedtobepretendingtobelaidupwithasickvoicedoinghishighnesstomakehimselfinterestingforthatoldfaggotMrsRiordanthathethoughthehadagreatlegofandsheneverleftusafarthingallformassesforherselfandhersoulgreatestmisereverwasactuallyafraidtolayout4dforhermethylatedspirittellingmeallherailmentsshehadtoomucholdchatinheraboutpoliticsandearthquakesandtheendoftheworldletushaveabitoffunfirstGodhelptheworldifallthewomenwerehersortdownonbathingsuitsandlownecksofcoursenobodywantedhertowearthemIsupposeshewaspiousbecausenomanwouldlookathertwiceIhopeIllneverbelikeherawondershedidntwantustocoverourfacesbutshewasawelleducatedwomancertainlyandhergabbytalkaboutMrRiordanhereandMrRiordanthereIsupposehewasgladtogetshutofher.[188] Spiritualapproaches[edit] Furtherinformation:Higherconsciousness Tomostphilosophers,theword"consciousness"connotestherelationshipbetweenthemindandtheworld.Towritersonspiritualorreligioustopics,itfrequentlyconnotestherelationshipbetweenthemindandGod,ortherelationshipbetweenthemindanddeepertruthsthatarethoughttobemorefundamentalthanthephysicalworld.ThemysticalpsychiatristRichardMauriceBucke,authorofthe1901bookCosmicConsciousness:AStudyintheEvolutionoftheHumanMind, distinguishedbetweenthreetypesofconsciousness:'SimpleConsciousness',awarenessofthebody,possessedbymanyanimals;'SelfConsciousness',awarenessofbeingaware,possessedonlybyhumans;and'CosmicConsciousness',awarenessofthelifeandorderoftheuniverse,possessedonlybyhumanswhoareenlightened.[189]Manymoreexamplescouldbegiven,suchasthevariouslevelsofspiritualconsciousnesspresentedbyPremSaranSatsangiandStuartHameroff.[190] AnotherthoroughaccountofthespiritualapproachisKenWilber's1977bookTheSpectrumofConsciousness,acomparisonofwesternandeasternwaysofthinkingaboutthemind.Wilberdescribedconsciousnessasaspectrumwithordinaryawarenessatoneend,andmoreprofoundtypesofawarenessathigherlevels.[191] Seealso[edit] Medicineportal Philosophyportal Antahkarana Centipede'sdilemma Cognitiveclosure Cognitiveneuroscience Cognitivepsychology Chaitanya(consciousness) Episodicmemory Explanatorygap Feelings Functionalism(philosophyofmind) Indianpsychology Merkwelt Mirrorneuron ModelsofConsciousness Modularityofmind Newmysterianism Plantperception(paranormal) Sakshi(Witness) Solipsism References[edit] ^"consciousness".Merriam-Webster.RetrievedJune4,2012. ^RobertvanGulick(2004)."Consciousness".StanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy.MetaphysicsResearchLab,StanfordUniversity. ^SusanSchneider;MaxVelmans(2008)."Introduction".InMaxVelmans;SusanSchneider(eds.).TheBlackwellCompaniontoConsciousness.Wiley.ISBN 978-0-470-75145-9. 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^RichardMauriceBucke(1905).CosmicConsciousness:AStudyintheEvolutionoftheHumanMind.Innes&Sons.pp. 1–2. ^Satsangi,PremSaranandHameroff,Stuart(2016)Consciousness:IntegratingEasternandWesternPerspectivesNewAgeBooks.ISBN 978-81-7822-493-0 ^KenWilber(2002).TheSpectrumofConsciousness.MotilalBanarsidass.pp. 3–16.ISBN 978-81-208-1848-4. Furtherreading[edit] LibraryresourcesaboutConsciousness Resourcesinyourlibrary Resourcesinotherlibraries Chalmers,David(1996).TheConsciousMind:InSearchofaFundamentalTheory.OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-511789-9. Damasio,Antonio(2021).Feeling&Knowing:MakingMindsConscious.CognitiveNeuroscience.12.PenguinRandomHouse.pp. 65–66.doi:10.1080/17588928.2020.1846027.ISBN 9781524747558.PMID 33323038.S2CID 229283104. Dehaene,Stanislas(2014).ConsciousnessandtheBrain:DecipheringHowtheBrainCodesOurThoughts.VikingPress.ISBN 978-0670025435. Dennett,Daniel(1991).ConsciousnessExplained.Little,BrownandCompany.ISBN 9780316439480. Frankish,Keith(2021).Consciousness:TheBasics.Routledge.ISBN 9781138655980. Harley,Trevor(2021).TheScienceofConsciousness:Waking,Sleeping,andDreaming.CambridgeUniversityPress.doi:10.1017/9781316408889.ISBN 978-1-107-56330-8.S2CID 233977060. Koch,Christof(2019).TheFeelingofLifeItself:WhyConsciousnessIsWidespreadbutCan'tBeComputed.MITPress.ISBN 9780262042819. Overgaard,Morten;Mogensen,Jesper;Kirkeby-Hinrup,Asger,eds.(2021).BeyondNeuralCorrelatesofConsciousness.Routledge.ISBN 9781138637986. Prinz,Jesse(2012).TheConsciousBrain:HowAttentionEngendersExperience.OxfordUniversityPress.doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195314595.001.0001.ISBN 9780195314595. Schneider,Susan;Velmans,Max,eds.(2017).TheBlackwellCompaniontoConsciousness(2nd ed.).Wiley-Blackwell.ISBN 978-0-470-67406-2. Seth,Anil(2021).BeingYou:ANewScienceofConsciousness.PenguinRandomHouse.ISBN 9781524742874. Thompson,Evan(2014).Waking,Dreaming,Being:SelfandConsciousnessinNeuroscience,Meditation,andPhilosophy.ColumbiaUniversityPress.ISBN 9780231136952. Zelazo,PhilipDavid;Moscovitch,Morris;Thompson,Evan,eds.(2007).TheCambridgeHandbookofConsciousness.CambridgeUniversityPress.doi:10.1017/CBO9780511816789.ISBN 978-0-521-67412-6. Externallinks[edit] Wikiquotehasquotationsrelatedto:Consciousness WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedtoConsciousness. ThedictionarydefinitionofconsciousnessatWiktionary ConsciousnessStudiesatWikibooks Gulick,RobertVan."Consciousness".InZalta,EdwardN.(ed.).StanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy. "Consciousness".InternetEncyclopediaofPhilosophy. vteConsciousnessFiguresPhilosophy AlfredNorthWhitehead ArthurSchopenhauer BaruchSpinoza BertrandRussell BrianO'Shaughnessy CharlesAugustusStrong ChristopherPeacocke ColinMcGinn DanielDennett DavidChalmers DavidHume DavidPapineau DavidPearce DonaldDavidson DouglasHofstadter EdmundHusserl FrankJackson FredDretske GalenStrawson GeorgeBerkeley GeorgeHenryLewes GeorgesRey GottfriedLeibniz ImmanuelKant JohnEccles JohnLocke JohnPolkinghorne JohnSearle JosephLevine KarlPopper KeithFrankish KennethM.Sayre MauriceMerleau-Ponty MaxVelmans MichaelTye MartinHeidegger NedBlock PatriciaChurchland PaulChurchland PhilipGoff RenéDescartes ThomasMetzinger ThomasNagel WilliamKingdonClifford WilliamLycan WilliamSeager Psychology CarlGustavJung DonaldD.Hoffman FranzBrentano GustavFechner KurtKoffka MaxWertheimer SigmundFreud WilhelmWundt WilliamJames WolfgangKöhler Neuroscience AnilSeth AntonioDamasio BenjaminLibet BernardBaars ChristofKoch FrancisCrick FranciscoVarela GeraldEdelman GiulioTononi KarlPribram LawrenceWeiskrantz MichaelGazzaniga MichaelGraziano PatrickWilken RogerSperry StanislasDehaene StevenLaureys StuartHameroff WolfSinger Others AnnakaHarris DavidBohm EugeneWigner ErwinSchrödinger MarvinMinsky MaxPlanck RogerPenrose SusanBlackmore VictorJ.Stenger WolfgangPauli TheoriesPhilosophyofmind Anomalousmonism Computationalism Double-aspecttheory Eliminativematerialism Emergentism Epiphenomenalism Functionalism Idealism Interactionism Materialism Mind–bodydualism Monism Neutralmonism Newmysterianism Panpsychism Parallelism Physicalism Propertydualism Qualia Reflexivemonism Revisionarymaterialism Solipsism Typephysicalism(reductivematerialism,identitytheory) Science Attentionschematheory Dynamiccorehypothesis Damasio'stheoryofconsciousness Electromagnetictheoriesofconsciousness Globalworkspacetheory Holonomicbraintheory Integratedinformationtheory Lamme'srecurrentfeedbackhypothesis Multipledraftsmodel Orchestratedobjectivereduction Topics Agnosia Alteredstateofconsciousness Animalconsciousness Artificialconsciousness Attention Awareness Bindingproblem Binocularrivalry Blindsight Brain Cartesiantheater Consciousnessafterdeath Disordersofconsciousness Dividedconsciousness Dualconsciousness(split-brain) Experience Explanatorygap Freewill Flashsuppression Hallucination Hardproblemofconsciousness Heterophenomenology Higherconsciousness Illusion Introspectionillusion Knowledgeargument Locked-insyndrome Mind Mind–bodyproblem Minimallyconsciousstate Neuralcorrelatesofconsciousness Neurophenomenology Ontology Phenomenology Philosophicalzombie Philosophyofmind Primaryconsciousness Problemofotherminds Reentry Qualia Quantummind Sakshi Purusha Secondaryconsciousness Sentience Sentiocentrism Sociologyofhumanconsciousness Soul Streamofconsciousness Subconscious Subjectivecharacterofexperience Subjectivity Unconsciousmind Unconsciousness Upanishads Visualmasking VonNeumann–Wignerinterpretation Yogachara Works AUniverseofConsciousness AssociationfortheScientificStudyofConsciousness ConsciousnessandCognition ConsciousnessExplained CosmicConsciousness HowtheSelfControlsItsBrain JournalofConsciousnessStudies OnlineConsciousnessConference Psyche TheAstonishingHypothesis TheConsciousMind TheEmperor'sNewMind TheScienceofConsciousness UnderstandingConsciousness "WhatIsitLiketoBeaBat?" 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Tests Bender-GestaltTest BentonVisualRetentionTest ClinicalDementiaRating ContinuousPerformanceTask GlasgowComaScale HaylingandBrixtontests Johariwindow Lexicaldecisiontask Mini-mentalstateexamination Stroopeffect WechslerAdultIntelligenceScale Wisconsincardsorting  Philosophyportal vteModernspirituality Spirituality Outlineofspirituality Category:Spirituality Concepts Afterlife AkashicRecords Atman Awakening Bodhi Chakra Consciousness Cosmogony Cosmology Creationmyths Deity Dharma Ekam Emanationism Enlightenment Epigenesis Eschatology Eternalreturn Eternity Ethicofreciprocity Existence God Guru Innerpeace Involution Jihad Karma Lataif-e-sitta Meaningoflife Metaphysics Mind'seye Moksha Nature Nirvana Parapsychology Planesofexistence Prophecy Qi Reality Reincarnation Revelation Salvation Samadhi Satguru Satori Shabd Shunyata Soul Spirit Spiritualevolution Spiritualism Spiritualpossession Synchronicity Tao Tatvas Yana Yuga Practices Ahimsa Aikido Altruism Ancestorworship Asceticism Astrology Bearingtestimony Beingbornagain Bhajan Bhakti Blessing Celibacy Channelling Chanting Contemplation Dhikr Entheogen Epiphany Exorcism Faithhealing Fasting Glossolalia Hymn Iconolatry Japa kinomichi Koanpractice Mantra Meditation Martyrdom Ministering Miracles Monasticism Muraqaba Nonresistance Nonviolence Pacifism Pilgrimage Prayer Qawwali Qigong Religiousecstasy Religiousmusic Repentance Revivalism Ritual Sacrament Sacrifice Sādhanā Sahajmarg Sainthood Self-realization Shamanism Simpleliving Simran Supplication Sufiwhirling T'aichich'uan Theosis Tithing Vegetarianism Veneration Vipassana Wabi-sabi Wearingvestments Worship Yoga Zazen Beliefsystems Advaita Anthroposophy Darshana Deism Esotericism Eutheism,dystheism,andmaltheism Gnosticism Henotheism Kathenotheism Monotheism Monolatry Mysticism NewAge Nondualism Pandeism Panentheism Pantheism Polytheism Religion Spiritualism Sufism Taoism Theism Transcendentalism Vedanta Texts ACourseinMiracles AkilattirattuAmmanai Bible BookofMormon TheCloudofUnknowing Dhammapada Hinduscripture GuruGranthSahib IChing Qur'an Sufitexts TaoTeChing Torah TheUrantiaBook Zhuangzi Virtues Awareness Charity Compassion/Empathy Faith Forgiveness Gratitude Honesty Hope Intuition Kindness Love Mercy Mettā Moralcourage Patience Sevenvirtues Wisdom vtePhilosophyofmindPhilosophers Anscombe Austin Aquinas Bain Bergson Bhattacharya Block Brentano Broad Burge Chalmers Churchland Dennett Dharmakirti Davidson Descartes Goldman Heidegger Husserl Feyerabend Fodor James Kierkegaard Leibniz Lewis McDowell Merleau-Ponty Minsky Moore Nagel Parfit Putnam Popper Rorty Ryle Searle Spinoza Turing Vasubandhu Wittgenstein Zhuangzi more... 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