Attractiveness Is Multimodal: Beauty Is Also in the Nose and ...

Physical attractiveness plays a central role in the assessment of human mate value. This has made it a widely examined topic in contemporary ... Articles MartinFieder UniversityofVienna,Austria MichaelA.WoodleyofMenie CenterLeoApostelforInterdisciplinaryStudies,VrijeUniversityBrussel,Belgium CarinPerilloux SouthwesternUniversity,UnitedStates Theeditorandreviewers'affiliationsarethelatestprovidedontheirLoopresearchprofilesandmaynotreflecttheirsituationatthetimeofreview. Abstract Introduction AttractivenessisMultimodal EvolutionarySignificanceofMultimodalIndicesofAttractiveness TheComplexNatureofMultimodalPerception Conclusion AuthorContributions ConflictofInterestStatement Acknowledgments References SuggestaResearchTopic> DownloadArticle DownloadPDF ReadCube EPUB XML(NLM) Supplementary Material Exportcitation EndNote ReferenceManager SimpleTEXTfile BibTex totalviews ViewArticleImpact SuggestaResearchTopic> SHAREON OpenSupplementalData MINIREVIEWarticle Front.Psychol.,18May2017 |https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00778 AttractivenessIsMultimodal:BeautyIsAlsointheNoseandEaroftheBeholder AgataGroyecka1,KatarzynaPisanski1,2,AgnieszkaSorokowska1,3,JanHavlíček4,MaciejKarwowski5,DavidPuts6,S.CraigRoberts7andPiotrSorokowski1* 1InstituteofPsychology,UniversityofWroclaw,Wroclaw,Poland 2MammalVocalCommunicationandCognitionResearchGroup,SchoolofPsychology,UniversityofSussex,Sussex,UnitedKingdom 3DepartmentofPsychotherapyandPsychosomaticMedicine,TechnischeUniversitätDresden,Dresden,Germany 4DepartmentofZoology,FacultyofScience,CharlesUniversity,Prague,Czechia 5TheMariaGrzegorzewskaUniversity,Warsaw,Poland 6DepartmentofAnthropology–CenterforBrain,Behavior,andCognition–CenterforHumanEvolutionandDiversity,ThePennsylvaniaStateUniversity,UniversityPark,PA,UnitedStates 7DivisionofPsychology,UniversityofStirling,Stirling,UnitedKingdom Attractivenessplaysacentralroleinhumannon-verbalcommunicationandhasbeenbroadlyexaminedindiversesubfieldsofcontemporarypsychology.Researchershavegarneredcompellingevidenceinsupportoftheevolutionaryfunctionsofphysicalattractivenessanditsroleinourdailylives,whileatthesametime,havinglargelyignoredthesignificantcontributionofnon-visualmodalitiesandtherelationshipsamongthem.Acousticandolfactorycuescan,separatelyorincombination,stronglyinfluencetheperceivedattractivenessofanindividualandthereforeattitudesandactionstowardthatperson.Here,wediscusstherelativeimportanceofvisual,auditoryandolfactorytraitsinjudgmentsofattractiveness,andreviewneuralandbehavioralstudiesthatsupportthehighlycomplexandmultimodalnatureofpersonperception.Further,wediscussthreealternativeevolutionaryhypothesesaimedatexplainingthefunctionofmultipleindicesofattractiveness.Inthisreview,weprovideseverallinesofevidencesupportingtheimportanceofthevoice,bodyodor,andfacialandbodyappearanceintheperceptionofattractivenessandmatepreferences,andthereforethecriticalneedtoincorporatecross-modalperceptionandmultisensoryintegrationintofutureresearchonhumanphysicalattractiveness. Introduction Physicalattractivenessplaysacentralroleintheassessmentofhumanmatevalue.Thishasmadeitawidelyexaminedtopicincontemporarypsychologyandbiology.Thevariablesthatdeterminematevalue,suchashealth,sexualmaturityandreproductivepotential,areoftennotdirectlyobservable.However,numerousstudieshaveshownthattheseindicesofmatevaluepredictmeasuresandratingsofphysicalattractiveness(forreviewsee,Grammeretal.,2003).Sexualselectionisthereforethoughttohaveshapedpsychologicalmechanismswhosefunctionitistoextractandprocessinformationrelatedtogoodhealthandreproductiveability(SinghandRandall,2007).Whilephysicalattractivenesshasbeenextensivelyexaminedinamatingcontext,attractivenessalsoplaysanimportantroleinvariousnon-sexualsocialcontextssuchasfriendshipformation(Wangetal.,2010),schoolsettings(LernerandLerner,1977),andjobinterviews(WatkinsandJohnston,2000).Ithasalsobeenexaminedasapotentialriskfactorforvariousmentaldisorders(Davisetal.,2000). AttractivenessisMultimodal Researchershavegarneredcompellingevidenceinsupportoftheevolutionaryfunctionsofphysicalattractivenessanditsroleinourdailylives,althoughtheoverwhelmingfocushasbeenonthecontributionofvisualcues(Eaglyetal.,1991;Langloisetal.,2000;WeedenandSabini,2005;Maestripierietal.,2016;butseePutsetal.,2012).However,whilevisualcuesareindeedstrongpredictorsofoverallattractivenessjudgments(DouglasandShepard,1998;Sorokowskietal.,2013),attractivenessisalsoinfluencedbyaperson’svoice(forreviewssee,HillandPuts,2016;PisanskiandFeinberg,2017)andscent(Robertsetal.,2011).Together,vision,audition,andolfactionformthekeytelereceptivesensesthatprocessbothproximalanddistantsensoryinformationintheexternalenvironment,andwhich,incombination,increasetheefficiencyofouractionsandreactionswhenprocessingcriticalsocialcues(AgliotiandPazzaglia,2011).Incontrasttoothersenses(tasteandtouch),peoplecanformfirstimpressionsofothersbasedontheirvisualappearance,voiceorsmellevenatsomedistance,withoutengagingtheperson’swillorawareness.Inthispaper,wearguethatamorebalancedapproachthatintegratesresearchacrossthesethreemodalitieswillprovidestrongerevidenceregardingthecomplexfactorsunderlyinghumanattractivenessandthedegreetowhichattractivenessinfluenceshumanlife. Severalempiricalstudiesdemonstratethattheperceptionofattractivenessismultimodal.Attheneurallevel,multiplemodalitiesinpersonperceptionareintegratedinthesuperiortemporalsulcus(STS;CampanellaandBelin,2007).Atafunctionallevel,facial,vocal,andolfactoryattractivenesshaveallbeenlinkedtotraitsindicativeofsexhormonelevelsandhealth(e.g.,Rantalaetal.,2006;Feinberg,2008;Putsetal.,2012).Indeed,attractivenessjudgmentsoftenco-varyacrossmodalities(RikowskiandGrammer,1999;Saxtonetal.,2009;HughesandMiller,2016),althoughthesecross-modalrelationshipscandifferbysex(CurrieandLittle,2009;O’Connoretal.,2013;Hilletal.,2016;Valentovaetal.,2017).Despiteagrowingbodyofresearchconcerningtheattractivenessofvocalandolfactorycues,thesestudiesremainscarcecomparedtothevastnumberofstudiesexaminingvisuallyassessedphysicalattractiveness,mostofwhichfocusontheface. Theamountofinformationonecangaugeaboutapersonsolelyfromherorhisscentandvoiceisimpressive.Forexample,humanscanuseolfactorycuespresentinbodyodortoassesssex(Schleidtetal.,1981),personality(Sorokowska,2013a)includingdominance(Havlíčeketal.,2005),actualfertility(Gildersleeveetal.,2012),diet(Fialováetal.,2013),geneticcompatibility(HavlíčekandRoberts,2009),healthstatus(Moshkinetal.,2012),andage(Mitroetal.,2012).Humansalsohavethecapacitytorecognizekinviabodyodor(Weisfeldetal.,2003;Ferdenzietal.,2010),whichmaybeimportantinmatechoiceinordertoavoidinbreeding.Similarly,vocalcuesallowotherstomakerelativelyaccuratejudgmentsabout,forexample,anotherperson’ssex(Lassetal.,1976),age(Bruckertetal.,2006),dominance(Putsetal.,2007),cooperativeness(e.g.,KnowlesandLittle,2016),emotionalstate(Scherer,1986),physicalstrength(Selletal.,2010),bodysize(Pisanskietal.,2014a)andactualfertility(PipitoneandGallup,2008;Putsetal.,2013). Giventhatecologicallyrelevantinformationisperceptuallyavailableinothers’voicesandbodyodors,itislikelythatvoiceandodorplayasalientroleinoureverydaydecision-making,andthatutilizingandintegratinginformationfromthevisual,acousticandolfactorychannelsmayimprovesocialcommunication.Thus,theimportanceofmodalitiesotherthanvisioninsocialperceptionshouldnotbeneglectedinscientificresearch. Whilemultisensoryintegrationinhumanperceptionisuncontroversial,thenumberofresearchersexaminingthisphenomenoninsocialcommunicationremainsrelativelysmall,andthemechanismsunderpinningitremainunclear.Brainimagingstudiessuggestthattheneuralresponsetocombinedvisual–olfactorycuesintherightmiddletemporalcortexandleftsuperiorparietalcortexissuper-additive–higherthanthesumofvisualandolfactorycuespresentedinisolation(Royetetal.,2013).ThereisalsogrowingevidencethattheSTSregionofthebrainpreferentiallyprocessessocialinformationgarneredfromboththeface(forreviewsee,Allisonetal.,2000)andthevoice(Belinetal.,2000).Thissuggeststhatthehumanbrainmaybe‘hardwired’toprocessfacesandvoicesdifferentlyfromothervisualandauditorystimuli.Perceptualexperimentsexaminingvisualandauditoryadaptationeffectsfurthersuggestthatmentalrepresentationsoffacesandvoicesoverlapcross-modally(Littleetal.,2013). EvolutionarySignificanceofMultimodalIndicesofAttractiveness Thereareseveralevolutionaryexplanationsregardingthepotentialadaptivefunctionsofmultisensoryintegrationinpersonperception.Extrapolatingfromworkonmultiplesignalinginanimals(MöllerandPomiankowski,1993),themultiplemessagehypothesisproposesthateachsignalorcuereflectsauniqueandindependentpropertyofanindividual’soverallconditionorquality.Alternatively,accordingtotheredundantsignal(or‘backup’)hypothesis(Zuketal.,1992;ThornhillandGrammer,1999),eachtraitprovidessimilarandoverlappinginformation.Followingthismodel,individualspayattentiontoseveraltraitsormodalitiesbecause,incombination,multipletraitsprovideabetterestimateofgeneralconditionthananysingletrait.Theunreliablesignalhypothesis(MöllerandPomiankowski,1993)arguesthatsometraitsareunreliableindicatorsofoverallconditionandareonlymaintainedbecausetheyarerelativelyuncostlytoproduceandbecausethereisaweakpreferenceforthem.Finally,fitnessindicatortheory(Miller,1998,2000a)positsthatanindividual’sgeneticqualityisexpressedbycombiningvariousphenotypictraitsthateachindicatefertilityandhealth.Thetheorystatesthatthesesignalscanbeperceivedatadistancethroughdifferentchannels(vision,audition,orolfaction)andareusefulnotonlyforattractingmates,butalsofordeterringpredatorsandintimidatingrivals(Miller,2000a).Theconsiderationsaboutindicatorsoffitnessgofarbeyondphysicaltraitsandinclude,forexample,intelligenceandhumor(e.g.,Miller,2000b;Prokoschetal.,2004;HowriganandMacDonald,2008;SefcekandFigueredo,2010).Thesetheoriesarenotallmutuallyexclusiveandthedegreetowhichtheyapplytomultipleindicatorsofattractivenessislikelytovaryacrosstraits. Somestudiessuggestthatinformationgaugedfrommultiplemodalitiescanhavebothindependentandadditiveeffectsonjudgmentsofattractiveness,suchthatvoices,faces,bodies,andbodyodorscanprovidesomepartlyredundantinformationaboutmatequality,butalsosomenon-redundantinformation.Forinstance,facesandbodiesappeartocontributeindependentlytooverallattributionsofattractiveness,withfacesexplainingsignificantlymoreofthevariationforbothmenandwomenthanbodies(Petersetal.,2007)suggestingmultiplesignaling,however,onlyintermsofonemodality.Incontrast,combininganattractivefacewithanattractivevoiceorscentcanresultinhigheroveralljudgmentsofattractivenessthanpresentinganymodalityalone(Ferdenzietal.,2016),whichcanbeinterpretedassupportfortheredundantsignalhypotheses.Yet,evenintheabsenceofvisualcues,anattractivevoice(PisanskiandFeinberg,2017)oranattractivebodyodor(Gueguen,2001;Sorokowska,2013b)canelicitprosocialbehaviororgeneratepositiveimpressionsinothers,andcanindependentlypredictindividualdifferencesinreproductiveandsocioeconomicsuccess(e.g.,Putsetal.,2012).Thus,non-visualindicesofattractivenessmayaccountforadditionalvariationinthe‘attractivenesspremium’thatisunaccountedforbymeasuringvisualattractivenessalone(seealsoSaxtonetal.,2009). TheComplexNatureofMultimodalPerception Studiesexamininginteractionsamongthemodalitiesunderscoretheinevitablecomplexityofmultimodalsensoryintegrationwhenitcomestojudgingattractiveness.Forexample,men’spreferencesforrelativefemininityinwomen’sfacesandvoicescorrelate,yetthiscross-modalinteractiondoesnotalwaysgeneralizetomen’sassessmentsofothermen(O’Connoretal.,2013).Women,ontheotherhand,preferanintermediatelevelofoverallmasculinityandappeartoachieveanoptimalaveragelevelofthisdimensioneitherbypreferringanintermediatelevelofmasculinityforeachmodalityortrait(e.g.,bodyappearanceorvoiceacoustics),oremployingflexiblecross-modaltrade-offs(e.g.,theymightpreferlessmasculinebodiesinmenwithmoremasculinevoices,andviceversa)(Hilletal.,2013).Further,instudiesofgeneticcomplementaritybetweenpartners,anintermediatelevelofgeneticdissimilarityisusuallyoptimal.Whilepeopletendtofindfacesofotherswithgenotypessimilartotheirownmostattractive,theyprefertheodorsofthosewithdissimilargenotypes.Assuch,faceandodorpreferencesmightbeusedintandemtofilteroutunsuitablepartnersateitherextremetoachieveoptimalcomplementarity(Robertsetal.,2005;butseeWinternitzetal.,2017). Therelativeimportanceofeachmodalitymightalsoshiftdynamicallyduringrelationshipformation.Forexample,visualandvocalcharacteristicsarelikelytobemoreimportantearlyon,whereasodorrequirescloserandmoreintimatephysicalcontact.Potentialmatesmayutilizephysicalappearanceasafirst-passscreen,whilesmellpotentiallyimpartsadditionalinformationduringsubsequentinspection.Othershiftsinpreferencesmayoccuracrosswomen’smenstrualcycles.Ithasbeenshownthatwomen’spreferencesformen’svoices(Pisanskietal.,2014b),odors(Havlíčeketal.,2005)andfaces(Penton-Voaketal.,1999)peakaroundthetimeofovulation,however,itremainsunknownwhethersuchcycliceffectsgeneralizetocross-modalintegration(forreviewsee,Havlíčeketal.,2015). Therelativeimportanceofvarioustraitsormodalitiesmayalsovarycontextually.Forinstance,CurrieandLittle(2009)aswellasConferetal.(2010)showedthatwomen’sbodiesarerelativelymoreimportanttomen’sjudgmentsofattractivenessinashort-termrelationshipcontext,whereasfacialappearancebecomesmorecriticalinalong-termrelationshipcontext.Thisdifferenceislessapparentinwomen’sjudgmentsofmen’straits.Menandwomenalsodifferintherelativeimportancetheyascribetovariousattributesofapotentialmate.Forexample,whilemenrelymoreonvisualattributes,womenpaymoreattentiontoolfactorycues(Havlíčeketal.,2008). Conclusion Thecomplexityofwhatpeopleperceiveasattractivehighlightstheneedformoreresearchonthemultimodalnatureofpersonperception,aschallengingasthismaybe.Inadditiontostudyingeachmodalityasifitexistsindependentlyoftheothers(whichintherealworlditmostoftendoesnot),researchershavefocuseddisproportionatelyonvisualindicatorsofattractiveness,underplayingtheinfluenceofscentandvoice.Inarecentandrelativelybroadtheoreticalreviewofprosocialbiasesinfavorofattractivepeople,Maestripierietal.(2016)referdirectlytotheattractivenessofvoicesandscentsonlyonce(seealsoGangestadandScheyd,2005).Thisistrueofolderreviewsaswell(e.g.,GangestadandScheyd,2005),andsomereviewsdonotmentionthesemodalitiesatall(e.g.,Buggioetal.,2012).Similarly,studiesexaminingthecorrelatesofphysicalattractiveness(e.g.,socialcompetence,professionalsuccess),focusmainlyonitsvisualaspects.Wecannotignoretheimportantcontributionthatcross-modalresearchcanoffertoourunderstandingoftheevolutionaryoriginandsocialfunctionsofattractivenessandmatepreferences.Wehopethatmoreresearchersinterestedinattractiveness(andinpersonperceptionmorebroadly)willintegratevisualandnon-visualmarkersofattractivenessintheirresearch,andindoingsocontributetoabetterunderstandingofmultisensoryintegrationandtherolethatbeautyplaysinoureverydaylives. AuthorContributions Ideaofthereview:PS,KP,AS,andMK.Wrotethemanuscript:AG,KP,AS,JH,MK,DP,SR,andPS. ConflictofInterestStatement Theauthorsdeclarethattheresearchwasconductedintheabsenceofanycommercialorfinancialrelationshipsthatcouldbeconstruedasapotentialconflictofinterest. Acknowledgments ThepaperwasmadepossiblebythefundsfromthePolishMinistryofScienceandHigherEducation(grantIuventusPlus,IP2012046672).JHissupportedbytheCzechScienceFoundationgrantGA15-05048S. 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Editedby: MartinFieder,UniversityofVienna,Austria Reviewedby: CarinPerilloux,SouthwesternUniversity,UnitedStates MichaelAnthonyWoodleyofMenie,CenterLeoApostelforInterdisciplinaryStudies(VUB),Belgium Copyright©2017Groyecka,Pisanski,Sorokowska,Havlíček,Karwowski,Puts,RobertsandSorokowski.Thisisanopen-accessarticledistributedunderthetermsoftheCreativeCommonsAttributionLicense(CCBY).Theuse,distributionorreproductioninotherforumsispermitted,providedtheoriginalauthor(s)orlicensorarecreditedandthattheoriginalpublicationinthisjournaliscited,inaccordancewithacceptedacademicpractice.Nouse,distributionorreproductionispermittedwhichdoesnotcomplywiththeseterms. *Correspondence:PiotrSorokowski,[email protected] COMMENTARY ORIGINALARTICLE Peoplealsolookedat SuggestaResearchTopic>