CARAVAN - Encyclopaedia Iranica

The caravan developed in response to two basic conditions. ... Beginning in ancient times caravans traveled across the deserts and steppes of North Africa, ... Ab Ac Am As B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z   AdvancedSearch About Support&Donations PrintedVolumes Contact AdvancedSearch CANCEL Keywords Title Author Topic selectatopic... Archaeology Architecture ArtsandCrafts Biographies CentralAsia Caucasus Education EthnicGroups FloraandFauna Folklore ForeignRelations Geography History,Pre-Islamic History,Medieval History,Safavid History,Qajar History,Modern IndianSubcontinent Journalism Linguistics Literature,Pre-Islamic Literature,Pre-Modern Literature,Modern MaterialCulture Music Religion-Pre-Islam Religion-Islam Religion-Other Sciences SocialSciences Afghanistan Tags CARAVAN   CARAVAN(Pers.kār(a)vān,Mid.Pers.kārwāninNarseh’sinscriptionatPaikuli,connectedwithOPers.kāra“(groupof)people,army”),aformofcollectivetransportofmenandgoodsorganizedtoensuredefenseagainstarmedattack,sufficientprovisionsforbothtravelersandanimals,andadherencetopredeterminedroutesandschedules.IntheNearEastthemostcommonpackanimalswerecamels,butdonkeys,mules,horses,andsometimesevenoxenwerealsoused;ridinganimalswerealsoincludedtoprovidefreshmountsfortheaccompanyingpersonnel.Incontrasttowagontrains,caravansrarelyincludedvehicles. Thecaravandevelopedinresponsetotwobasicconditions.First,therewasahighlevelofdemandfortradegoodsthathadtobetransportedoverlongdistances;caravansmightspendweeksandevenmonthsenroutetomultipledestinations.Second,thelongstretchesofterritorythroughwhichtheroadspassedwereforthemostpartverysparselysettled.Inordertomaintainsecurityagainstarmedrobbers,itwascustomaryforsomemembersofthecaravantobefurnishedwithweaponsandevengivensomecombattraining(Hedin,I,pp.55,136;deBlocqueville,pp.46f.;Thielmann,p.306;Vámbéry,1865,pp.16,57;Polak,II,p.66).Adequateprovisionsandfodderfortheanimalshadtobebroughtalongorpurchasedatoccasionalroadsidemarketsandinsmalltownsalongtheway.Approximatelytentotwentypackanimalsformedaunit(Hedin,I,p.193).Theywerelinkedtooneanotherunderthesupervisionofasingleleader.Theentiretrainwasledbyachief(kārvān-sālār),whobothdecidedontheroutetobefollowedandundertooktheorganizationofthecaravan(Hedin,I,p.192;Vámbéry,1865,pp.49,53).Individualtravelerspaidhimalumpsumforeachcargoanimal;fromthesefundsallthecostsofthecaravanweretobepaid.Itwastheexclusivedutyofthecaravanchieftomakearrangementsforguards(badraqa),provisions,lodgings,andsoon.InthemountainousregionsofwesternPersiaandintheCaspiancoastalareaitwascommontotravelinthedaytime.InthesteppesanddesertareasofcentralPersiaandinCentralAsia,ontheotherhand,caravanstraveledbynightandrestedinthedaytime.Itwasalsocustomarytotakeadayofrestnowandthenifpossible,especiallyafteraparticularlyexhaustingmarch(Vámbéry,1867,pp.126f.;idem,1865,p.161andpassim;Polak,II,p.60). Caravansalwaysfollowedpreviouslyestablishedroutes,thesuccessivestagesofwhichweredeterminedbythelocationofwater,suitablerestingplaces,andsettlements.Noteveryonewasabletorecognizethetracksbetweenthesefixedpoints,however,andeverycaravanthereforerequiredaspecializedguide(rāh-namā,pīš-āhang,dalīl-erāh,orbalad).Theseroutesmusthavedevelopedgraduallyfromthetraditionaltravelpatternsofindividualsocietiesandculturalgroups.Becausetheyusuallyskirtedthelargedesertbasins(kavīrs)orcrossedthematonlyafewpoints,thestructureofcaravantraffichasbeencomparedwiththatofcoastalshipping.Desertroutesweremarkedatshortdistancesbypoles(mīl). Accordingtohistoricalsourcesandarcheologicalfindings,fromlateantiquitypoliticalauthoritiesmostoftentookresponsibilityforestablishingandmaintainingcaravanroutes,keepingthewellsandspringsinfunctioningorder,establishingrestingplacesatdistancesofaday’sjourney,managingshelters,buildingandprovidingmanpowerforfortifiedmilitarypostsalongtheway,constructingbridgesanddikestoholdbackseasonalfloods(Kleiss,1982),andtakingmeasurestosecurepassagethroughsteepmountaincountry.Inidealcircumstancestravelerswouldfindacaravansary ateachrestingplacealongtheroute.Afterpayinganentrancefeetheycouldobtainprovisionsforthemselvesandtheiranimals,sleepingquarters,andstables,allundertheprotectionofwatchmen(Thielmann,pp.302,305;Polak,II,p.57).Inaddition,itwasusuallypossibletohavesmallrepairsmadeandeventofindmedicaltreatment.Theauthorities’interestinprotectingandencouragingcaravantrafficwasgenerallystimulatedbytheprospectofcollectingroadtolls(rāh-dārī)andtaxes(bāj)intheformofcustomsduties,especiallywheretheroadspassedthroughtowns.ThesecurityoftheroadswastheresponsibilityofanofficialcalledḥāmīṭarīqundertheʿAbbasids(see,e.g.,Ebnal-Aṯīr,IX,p.193). Thelocationsofcaravanhalts(manzels)weredeterminedbythepresenceofsuppliesofdrinkingwater.Assoonasthewellsorspringsweredestroyedorexhausted,however,newlocationshadtobesought.Forexample,atthebeginningofthe11th/17thcenturyconstructionoftheʿAyn-eRašīdīcaravansaryatthesouthernendoftheSang-faršsouthofGarmsārhadtobehaltedbecausethespringassociatedwithitwasalreadyverysalty.ItwasabandonedandtheʿAbbāsī(orʿAbbāsābād)caravansarybuiltafewkilometersaway,nearpotablewater;itisstillinuseasamilitarypost(Kleiss,1980). Tradecaravansconstitutedthelargestcomponentofthecaravantraffic,butinPersiatherewereothertypesaswell.Themostimportantwerethepilgrimcaravans.ShiʿitepilgrimstraveledespeciallytotheholycitiesofMašhadandQom.IntheSafavidperiodPersiansfrequentlyvisitedArdabīl,wheretheshrineofShaikhṢafī-al-Dīn,theeponymousancestoroftheSafavidorderofdervishesandtheSafaviddynastyitself,waslocated(Olearius,p.466).ImportantpilgrimcaravansalsocrossedthebordersintotheOttomanempiretovisittheholyShiʿitemausolea(ʿatabāt)atNajafandKarbalāʾinIraq. Aspecialtypeofcaravan(naqlal-janāʾez,lit.“transportofcorpses”)wasorganized,especiallyinthe13th/19thcentury,totransportthedeadtotheʿatabātinIraq(Ende;Hedin,I,p.144;Vámbéry,1867,p.131).TobeburiedinthevicinityoftheShiʿiteholycities,whereʿAlīandḤosaynareburied,wasconsideredespeciallyblessed.Thispracticehadgrownupasaparalleltothecenturies-oldcustomamongpiousMuslimsofseekingburialatMedina,wherethetomboftheProphethimselfislocated.ThiscustomhadpersisteduntiltheWahhābīsseizedpowerintheḤejāzin1219/1804.InCentralAsiauntilthe1340s/1920sMuslimssoughttobeburiedinthecemeteriesontheoutskirtsofBukhara,wheremanySufishrinesarelocated,themostprominentbeingthatofBahāʾ-al-DīnNaqšband(Vámbéry,1865,p.159).Oftenlargesumsofmoneywerepaidforburialplotsandcaravantransportofthedead,forwhichspecialborder-crossingregulationshadtobeadopted.Theinfluenceofmodernpoliticsandadministrationandparticularlytheevolvingunderstandingofhygieneledtothedisappearanceofthistypeofcaravanatthebeginningofthe14th/20thcentury(Ende;Polak,I,p.365). UntiltheintroductionoftheWesternbankingsysteminPersiainthesecondhalfofthe13th/19thcentury,transfersoffundshadtobeaccomplishedbytransportingactualcoinagefromoneplacetoanother.Silvercoinswerepreciselycountedintoleathersacksandbroughttotheirdestinationsbyextremelywell-guardedcaravanstravelingbyprescribedroutes.Naturally,thistrafficprovidedaparticularlyattractivetargetforarmedbandits(Rabino). Historicaldevelopment.BeginninginancienttimescaravanstraveledacrossthedesertsandsteppesofNorthAfrica,throughtheNearEastasfarasAnatolia,toIndia,andviatheSilkRouteacrosstheenormousexpansesofCentralandEasternAsiathatseparatethePersianplateaufromChina.ContinuedtrafficontheSilkRoutedependednotonlyontheefficiencyandalertnessofPersianpoliticalauthoritiesbutalsoonthoseofTransoxaniaandthemanyregionalstatesofCentralAsia,includingprovincessubjecttoChineseadministration. Beginninginthe4th/10thcentury,theeffectivepowerofvariousgovernmentscouldbegaugedbytheenergywithwhichtheywatchedovercaravantraffic—apparentinthemultiplicationandextensionofroads,thefrequencyofrestingplacesandthefacilitiesprovided,andthemaintenanceofmilitarysecurityalongtheway.ThePersiancaravansystemreachedahighpointinthe5-6th/11-12thcenturiesundertheGreatSaljuqs(429-552/1038-1157;Siroux,passim;LeStrange,Lands,p.xximapno.1).ThepowerofthefirstrulersofthisdynastyextendednotonlyoverPersiabutalsooverIraq,Syria,centralandeasternAnatolia,alargepartofTransoxaniaasfarasḴᵛārazm,andmuchofAfghanistan.ThePersianplateauthusfunctionedasacrossroadsinthecaravantrafficbetweentheIslamicNearEast,Byzantium,andtheCaucasus,ononehand,andCentralAsiaandChina,ontheother.UntiltheendoftheMongolperiodthecityofRaywasthemostimportanthubofthistraffic(Kleiss,1984,p.195).ItwaslinkedtoBaghdadandMosulviaSāva,Hamadān,andKermānšāh(Bāḵtarān).ThemainroutecontinuedeastalongthebaseoftheAlborzmountainstoNīšāpūr,Marv(Mary),Bukhara,andSamarkandandacrossFerghana(Farḡāna)andXinjiang(Sinkiang)toChina.AconnectingroadledfromNīšāpūrviaṬūs(laterviaMašhad)toHeratandfromtherefarthertotheeastbyeitheranorthernorasouthernbranch.AroadfromRaypassedthroughIsfahantoYazd,Kermān,andBam,ononehand,andShiraz,ontheother.TothenorthwestRaywaslinkedtoTabrīz,fromwhichanorthernconnectionledviaNaḵjavān(Nakhichevan)toArmenia,Georgia,andtheCaucasusandasecondtoErzurumandTrabzoninAnatolia.TabrīzwasalsothestartingpointforaroadviaDīārbakr(Diyarbakr)andBīra(modernBirecik)ontheEuphratestoAleppo;thisroutewastobecomeextremelyimportantintheSafavidperiod(seebelow). AsaconsequenceoftheMongolconquest(ca.654/1256),PersiabecamemorecloselylinkedwithCentralAsiaandChina(Jahn),andtheSilkRoutecontinuedtoflourishthroughtheensuingTimuridperiod(771-906/1370-1500).Caravanroutesproliferated,andtrafficincreased.WiththecollapseoftheTimuridempireatthebeginningofthe10th/16thcenturyandthefragmentationofpoliticalpowerinPersia,Transoxania,andCentralAsia,however,caravanlinksbetweenPersiaandTransoxaniaweredisrupted,tothebenefitofcontemporaryEuropeanshippingtradebetweentheIndianOceanandthePersianGulf. Beginningintheearly10th/16thcenturycaravantrafficbecameincreasinglyregionalized,eachgreatempiremaintainingaseparatecaravannetwork.InPersiatheroads,caravansaries,andotherrelatedstructureswereofconsiderablehigherqualitythaninearlierperiods,especiallyafterthecapitalwasmovedtoIsfahanin1005/1596-97.EventhoughthehubofthePersiancaravantradehadshiftedtothesouth,fromRaytoIsfahan,onlyafewentirelynewrouteshadtobeconstructed.OneexampleisthesegmentoftheKāšān-Garmsār-FīrūzkūhroadthatcrossedtheMašīla(Daryāča-yeNamak),asaltmarshthatdriedupentirelyinsummer,andtheadjacentfoothillsoftheSīāhkūhrangethroughapermanentsaltmarshapproximately30kmwidetothevicinityofGarmsār.Manybridgeswereconstructedtocarrytheroad,andapavementapproximately7mwidewaslaid.Itwasfromthispavementthattheroadtookitsname:Sang-farš.Fromthebeginningofthe11th/17thcenturyalmostallthecaravansbetweenIsfahanandthenorthandnortheasttraveledovertheSang-farš;onlythedestructionofthebridgesinthe13th/19thcenturymadeitscontinueduseimpossible(Gabriel,1952,pp.71,188,197,302-04;Kleiss,1980,pl.40).Moreoften,however,alreadyexistingsecondaryroadswereimprovedandextended.Inthe11th/17thcenturytheSafavidcaravansystemwaslinkedwiththatoftheOttomanempireatonlythreemainpoints:Trabzon,Mosul(andthencetoAleppo,themostimportantcenterforPersiantradewiththeMediterranean),andBaghdad.TheIndiaoftheGreatMughalswasconnectedtotheSafavidcaravannetworkalmostexclusivelyviaQandaharandalittlefarthersouthviatheBam-Zāhedān-Quettaroad. FromPersiamostcaravansontheannualpilgrimagetoMecca(ḥajj)traveledviatheIraqiʿatabātortheroutethatpassedthroughAleppoandcontinuedontoDamascusandtheḤejāz.Towardtheendofthe13th/19thcenturyavariantroutebecamepopular,thoughfollowingitwasmoreexpensive.FollowingthemodernhighwayconstructedbytheRussiangovernment,pilgrimstraveledfromTabrīzviaYerevan(Īravān)andTbilisitotheBlackSeacoastinlarge-wheeledhorse-drawncarriagesknownastarantas(Pers.tārāntās)orevenincoachesoftheEuropeantype.TheycontinuedbyshiptoConstantinople,wheretheyattachedthemselvestopilgrimtrainsandeventuallyreachedAleppoorDamascus,rejoiningtheircountrymenwhohadtraveledinthecustomaryway(Amīn-al-Dawla,p.464,s.v.Teflīs;Fragner,p.21). Intothesecondhalfofthe13th/19thcenturypilgrimcaravanstoMašhad,eitherfromIsfahanandKāšānviaGarmsārandTehranorfromAstarābād(nowGorgān),wereespeciallyfrequent,thoughtheyhadtobeguardedfromraidsbyTurkmantribesseekingcaptivesfortheslavemarketsofKhiva(Ḵīva)andBukhara.ThefactthatinSunniteCentralAsiaShiʿiteswereconsidered“unbelievers”wascitedasjustificationforenslavingthem(Polak,II,pp.67-68). TowardtheendofthecenturythedomesticcaravantradeofPersiabecameprogressivelymoreisolatedfromthatofneighboringstatesasthegovernmentbegantodevelopamoderntransportationsystem,bypassingtoagreatextenttheancientcaravanroutes.ThefirststepwastoestablishhighwaysoftheEuropeankind,mostlysurfacedwithmacadamwithpavedsectionshereandthereanddesignedtocarryheavytransportvehicles,especiallytheRussiantarantas.Duringthisfirstphaseofmodernizationtraditionalcaravantransportactuallybenefitedfromsuchinnovationsassurfacedroads,greaterdensityofhostelsandprovisionstations,poststationsforthechangeofhorsesformilitaryandcivilpurposes(čāpār-ḵāna;seečapār),andimprovedbridgeconstruction.Inthecourseofthe14th/20thcentury,however,militaryrequirementsinparticularledtotheintroductionofheavytrailertrucks,lightvans,landvehiclessimilartojeeps,andeventuallybuses.Railroads,ontheotherhand,laggedbehindautomotivetransportationinPersia.Atfirstanimaltransportcontinuedalongsidemoremodernforms,buteventuallycaravansgavewayentirelytobuscompaniesfortransportofpeopleandtonationalandinternationalshippingfirmsfortransportofcargo(Ehlers,1980b,pp.249ff).Atthesametimethecaravansarieswerereplacedbyreststopswithfastfood,largegaragesandrepairshops,andwarehousesontheoutskirtsofcities.Herecamelandmuletrainscanstillbefoundcarryinglessperishableagriculturalcommodities(hay,straw,grain)overshortdistances,buttheyresemblecaravansonlysuperficially.Infactthecaravannolongerexists. Transoxania.SamarkandwasthecenterofthecaravantrafficofTransoxaniaandBactria,aswellaspartsofKhorasan,alwayssecondedbynearbyBukhara,untiltheRussianconquestinthesecondhalfofthe13th/19thcentury.ItwaslinkedinthesouthwithMarv,Herat,andBalḵ.AroadledtothewestviaḴᵛārazm(Khiva)toGorgān(Astarābād),ononehand,andtothemouthoftheVolgaontheCaspianSea,ontheother.KashgharcouldbereachedviaAstrakhan(Ḥājī-Tarḵān),Ferghana,andTurfan,bypassingTienshanonthenorth.WhilethePersiancaravannetworkwasbeingtransformed,stepbystep,intoamodernsystemofhighways,theTransoxaniannetworkwaseffectivelyeliminatedunderRussiancolonialadministration,whentheTrans-CaspianandTurkestan-Siberian(Turksib)railwayswerebuilt,in1883-88and1930respectively.WiththedevelopmentofTashkentattheturnofthe14th/20thcentury,theimportanceofSamarkandandBukharahadalreadybecomemarginal,and,owingtopoliticalchangesinthiscentury,allconnectionsbetweenthePersianplateauandCentralAsiaalongtheoldSilkRoutewerefinallysevered.   Bibliography: FarroḵKhanAmīn-al-Dawla,Safar-nāma,Tehran,1354Š./1975. 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(BertG.Fragner) OriginallyPublished:December15,1990 LastUpdated:December15,1990 Thisarticleisavailableinprint.Vol.IV,Fasc.7,pp.795-798 CARAVAN 0COMMENTS ADDCOMMENT 2TAGS ADDATAG Sectionsinthisentry CARAVAN IMAGES/TABLES   TAGS karavan karvan ©2022EncyclopædiaIranicaFoundation,Inc.AllRightsReserved. ISSN2330-4804 0COMMENTSonCARAVAN Name Email Content PrivacyPolicy AddComment TAGTHISARTICLE SuggestedTag Submittedtagswillbereviewedbysiteadministratorbeforeitispostedonline.Ifyouenterseveraltags,separatewithcommas. Email (Optional)Enteremailaddressifyouwouldlikefeedbackaboutyourtag. AddTag karavan karvan